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1. Introduction

1.1 Research Background

In the 19^th century, the important essays and references by Goethe (1814), Humboldt (1816), Novalis (1798), Schopenhauer (1851) and Nietzsche (1882) were more inclined toward literal translation; however, none of them established a systematic translation theory on its nature and methodology, i.e. some very significant contributions were made, but they never coalesced into a coherent, intersubjectively valid theory of translation (Wilss, 2001, p.56).

Eugene Albert Nida is one of the dominant figures among modern translation theorists. His translation theory is a comprehensive discussion of the basic aspects of translation: its relation to meaning and language, the definition of translation, principles of translation and the procedure or methodology of translation. His famous writings bring forth his important translation principle of dynamic equivalence (then developed into “functional equivalence”). Nida makes comments on the state of the traditional translation theories: “The fundamental differences in translation theories may be stated in terms of two conflicting poles: (1) literal vs. free translating; and (2) emphasis on form vs. concentration on content, ……Rarely are these conflicting views analyzed in detail or the implications of such principles worked out carefully in actual practice’’ (2004, pp.22-23). Recognizing the problematic nature of translational theories, Nida puts forward his theories of translation. In his famous book Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating, everything in one language can be said in another, and the form he original message should be adapted to target language and culture in order to communicate the meaning of messages effectively, that is, a translation is intended to be understood by the receptors. All in all, Nida’s new concept of translation is expressed in the following statement: “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida and Taber, 2004, p.12).

Nida’s translation theory has undoubted impact on the translation research throughout the world. Professor Tan Zaixi once evaluated: “Nida’s theoretical contribution helps to “create a new style of treating different cultures in different languages to promote the exchange and communication in the world” (1984, p.102). In particular, the influence of his “functional equivalence” has broadened our vision, showed us a new method of translation, liberalized our minds and helped us overcome mechanism. Functional equivalence theory is well-applied in various types of texts such as advertisements, political and legal passages, poetry and literature, thus worth analyzing in a concrete text.

“Gu Wen Guan Zhi” (《古文观止》), compiled around 1695, consists of essays from pre-Qin period to the end of Ming Dynasty, altogether about 222 essays. It was edited by Wu Chucai and Wu Diaohou in early Qing Dynasty, which are the cream of Chinese prose in ancient China. The Chinese characters “Guan Zhi” means “a collection of essays on the highest level among other Chinese classical articles” and the book was also one of official references for ancient students eager to be enrolled into government office through the imperial examination. It contains the prose of all types, some of which are convincing or lyrical, some descriptive or praising.

Professor Luo Jingguo comes from Beijing University. He only selected 32 from “古文观止” and translated them into English in 2005, hoping to give a full presentation to readers around the world, which shows his mastery as a translator. The 32 essays include The First Memorial to the King Before Setting Off for War, A Letter to His Majesty, Prologue to the Collection of Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion, Going Home, Tale of the Fountain of Peach Blossom Spring, Master Five Willows, A Tribute to King Teng’s Tower, A Letter to Han Jingzhou, Entertainment Given in the Peach and Plum Garden on a Spring Evening, An Epigraph in Praise of My Humble Home, On the Teacher, An Elegiac Address to the Twelfth Nephew, An Epitaph for Liu Zihou, The Snake Catcher, The Life of Camel Guo, The House Builder, Prologue to the Foolish Creek Poem, Shijun Wei’s New Hall in Yongzhou, The Hillock to the West of Gumu Pond, Mountain of the Little Rock City, The Pavilion of Plenty and Happiness, The Yueyang Tower, The Bamboo Pavilion in Huanggang, The Pavilion of the Drunken Old Man, Ode to the Sound of Autumn, An Epitaph Inscribed on the Memorial Tablet at the Path Leading to the Tomb in Shuanggang, The Timely Rain Pavilion, The Towering Terrace, The Stone Bell Mountain, The First Ode on the Red Cliff, The Second Ode on the Red Cliff and What the Orange Vendor Said. Therefore, Luo’s version of Gu Wen Guan Zhi will be analyzed under the framework of Nida’s Functional Equivalence.

1.2 Need for the Study

Up to now, little attention seems to have been paid to the study of Luo Jingguo’s version of Gu Wen Guan Zhi (A Selection of Classic Chinese Essays from Gu Wen Guan Zhi) and a lot of mysteries are required to be solved, which gives wonderful opportunities for us to explore it from a new perspective. Therefore, this thesis aims to prove that Luo’s is the model version from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence. This study is bound to inspire scholars to form new perspectives of examining some classical Chinese essays as well as enhancing a thorough understanding towards Nida’s functional equivalence. Besides, the author of this thesis hopes more and more relevant studies can appear like mushrooms afterwards.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Functional equivalence

The concept of functional adequacy in translating has been described in a number of books and articles as “dynamic equivalence”. In Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating (2003), “dynamic equivalence” has been treated in terms of the “closest natural equivalent”, but the term “dynamic” has been misunderstood by some people. Accordingly, many individuals think that if a translation has considerable impact, then it must be a correct example of dynamic equivalence. Because of this misunderstanding and in order to emphasize the concept of function, it seems much more satisfactory to use the expression “functional equivalence” in describing the degrees of adequacy of translation (Nida, 2001). “Dynamic equivalence” is therefore defined in terms of the degree in which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language (Nida，2004) .

The adequacy of a translation depends on a great many different factors: the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made, a fact which only complicates any evaluation of a translation. In general, it is proper to speak highly of “functional equivalence” in terms of a range of adequacy, since no translation is ever completely equivalent. That means that “equivalence” can be understood in terms of proximity, i.e. on the basis of degrees of closeness to functional identity.

As to functions, at least two exact points leave us deep thinking. From the very nature of functional equivalence, we translators have the correct standard of what a good target text is ----the readers will comprehend and conceive the text as the original readers may do. Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable. Besides, under the ideal conditions, readers will have essentially the same way of understanding the translated text as original reads do, which is hard to achieve and realize (Nida 2001). It gives me a clear idea of what the functional equivalence means; therefore, this thesis will examine Luo’s version with the aid of this translation theory in details.

2.2 Previous studies on Luo Jingguo’s A Selection of Classic Chinese Essays from Gu Wen Guan Zhi

Luo Jingguo’s 2005 version A Selection of Classic Chinese Essays from Gu Wen Guan Zhihas drawn many scholars’ attraction. Wang Qian (2009) makes a very elaborate interpretation of its beauty and translation techniques in Teng Wang Ge Xu, and sharply points out such techniques as allusions, parallel sentences, logic relationships, conversion of part of speech, etc. On the score of reflection of original beauty of Chinese essays, not only does Xuan Zhifeng (2012) speak highly of Luo’s A Selection of Classic Chinese Essays from Gu Wen Guan Zhi but clearly state the limitations in terms of its rhetoric devices and prosy beauty. Besides, Zheng Qiong (2013) deems A Selection of Classic Chinese Essays from Gu Wen Guan Zhi as adequate renderings from the perspective of stylistic correspondence. He also gives us the full explanation of disadvantages of Luo’s in terms of the deficiency of original beauty lying in classic Chinese essays. However, these two scholars’ arguments lack concrete examples on limitations of Luo’s A Selection of Classic Chinese Essays from Gu Wen Guan Zhi. They should prove their points of view by studying one specific aspect of “beauty”.

Quite a few scholars show great interest in the comparative study of different translated versions in the aspect of cultural equivalence by interpreting Lan Ting Ji Xu’s various translated versions by Lin Yutang, Xie Baikui, Sun Dayu and Luo Jingguo. Dong Xiaoguang (2011) says that Luo’s translation conveys particular cultural code and makes the exact correspondence in the “process” (the first one of the three main semantic scopes is in “transitivity”, and the other two are “participant” and “circumstantial element”). Besides, with Nida’s functional equivalence, he proves intextuality embodied in the “process” i.e. translated sentences are semantically equivalent, which gives me a hint to start my thesis; however, he does not make an in-depth study. Anyway, He provides us with a new method in appreciating different versions. Similarly, Ding Jianfang (2013) believes that among the translated versions by Luo Jingguo, Lin Yutang and American Sinologist James Hightower, Luo’s A Selection of Classic Chinese Essays from Gu Wen Guan Zhi bridges the communication and cultural gap between the east and the west. Based on Peter Newmark’s theory of communicative translation and semantic translation, she briefly explains how these are correctly applied in translation versions. Indeed, her perspective leaves rich imagination and keen interest for some scholars.

3. Luo Jingguo’s A Selection of Classic Chinese Essays from Gu Wen Guan Zhi: A Model Translation of Functional Equivalence

3.1 At the lexical level

The theory on functional equivalence can be examined at the lexical level, i.e. the target language can lexically correspond with the source language in the respect of part of speech such as nouns, verbs or adjectives as well as in terms of rhetoric such as personification, hyperbole or metaphor. We find that Luo’s A Selection of Classic Chinese Essays from Gu Wen Guan Zhi can achieve functional equivalence at the lexical level.

3.1.1 Part of speech

We are all familiar with different parts of speech composed of words which can be classified into 12 categories in a particular Chinese sentence according to their meanings and functions, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, numerals, quantifiers, conjunctions, onomatopoiea, interjections and auxiliaries, and 10 categories in a particular English sentence including nouns, pronouns, numerals, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, articles, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. Two examples will be illustrated to show equivalence can manifest itself in terms of noun, verb, adjective or adverbial translation.

Example 1

ST1: 《前出师表》（罗经国，2005, p. 1）

Luo1：The First Memorial to King before Setting off for War (Luo, 2005, p. 1)

In ST1, Zhuge Liang aims to write a essay to honor and console his late king and inspire courageous and virtuous people to rejuvenate the Han Dynasty. The sentence centers on one topic, i.e. we need to recall our memory and make new plans before we launch a war. Besides, “前” refers to the chronological order，“出师” the event, and “表” the genera.

In ST1, “出” is a verb and “师” is an object, which Luo renders into “setting off for war”. His translation conforms to the English grammar and semantic rule. What’s more, the noun “师”

does not connote the modern sense of “teacher” or “master”; Luo puts the preposition “前” into a noun phrase “the first memorial to king”, which fully manifests the relevant background and reasons why a war should be set off. Besides, there is no equivalent expression for the noun “表” in Luo1, for its meaning is already embodied in “the first memorial”; the omission of this noun truly indicates the translator’s careful thought. It is obvious that foreign readers will have the same comprehension about Qian Chu Shi Biao as Chinese counterparts do. In conclusion, Luo doesn’t only pursue the structural equivalence; instead, he focuses on the spirit and the meaning that the ST1 aims to convey. Therefore, Luo1 is very natural in the translation of the title and can well achieve the functional equivalence in general.

Example 2

ST2: 《陈情表》 （Luo, 2005，p. 10）

Luo2: A Letter to His Majesty (Luo, 2005，p. 10）

In ST2,《陈情表》 was written for Emperor of Jin Dynasty by Li Mi who was eager to support his beloved grandmother Liu. It is also one of classical ancient Chinese essays that express and eulogize filial piety. “情” refers to the mixed feelings of both gratitude to his old grandmother and loyalty to his emperor. The verb “陈” means “clearly state his emotion”. We Chinese readers are always touched by the author Li Mi’s real sentiment very much when reading this.

Luo doesn’t translate them literally, for this essay is presented to his majesty about his refusal to be an official in the government. But he doesn’t use any similar words such as “emotions or feelings” to replace “情”; instead, he puts them into “a letter to his majesty”. Although Luo gives up the equivalence in light of both the form and words, his version delivers the ST2 implication to great extent.

What’s more, it is required that translated versions should be flexible and various if examined by the functional equivalence theory. Luo2 plainly expresses the main idea of the Chinese essay, thus achieving functional equivalence semantically and structurally. This smart management of words conveys the spirit of this ancient essay and achieves equivalence at the lexical level. Most importantly, Luo vividly pictures a scene which foreign readers can enjoy as Chinese do.

3.1.2 Rhetorical devices

This section will discuss two kinds of rhetorical devices---understatement and metonymy. Among lexical stylistic devices, understatement means overstating factors by using abundant fancy ideas. Only in this way can the sentence be more vivid and lively. For example: “The football field is like a piece of palm”. It is a common sense that one football field is much larger than our palm in terms of size, thus able to give us the impression that the football field is really small as well as to capture our attention.

Metonymy is a common figure of speech in which a thing or concept is called not by its own name but rather by the name of something associated with it in meaning. For instance, "Wall Street" is often used metonymously to describe the U.S. financial and corporate sector while "Hollywood" a metonymy for the U.S. film industry because of the fame and cultural identity of Hollywood, a district of the city of Los Angeles, California, as the historical center of film studios and film stars. Examples 3 and 4 will analyze how figurative speeches can equally contribute to functional equivalence.

Example 3

ST3: 其声呜呜然，……余音袅袅，不绝如缕。 (Luo, 2005, p.187)

Luo3: The flute sounded melancholy……The sound persisted long in the air as if it were an endless thin thread of silk. (Luo, 2005, p.187)

The author Su Shi is drinking wines and singing loudly while the guest is playing the flute with lament and dismal feelings. Su voices his disappointment and listlessness about the loss of “beauty” (an ideal incarnation of his own faithful aspiration and ambition). “袅袅” in “余音袅袅” means that the sound of the flute is mild and long; “缕” in Chinese refers to “a very thin cloth”. Luo adds the verb “persist” so as for foreign readers to have a sense of the sound of the flute. Besides, “in the air” clearly indicates how and where the sound spreads. “An endless thin thread of silk” is an understatement, for the adjective “endless” and the phrase “thread of silk” are obvious symbols. All in all, Luo’s translation fully conveys the ST3 idea.

On the one hand, Luo takes into consideration the equivalence of grammar and rhetorical devices. On the other, he makes clear the importance of going beyond the formal equivalence. Particularly, he makes efforts to maintain the ST3 intention in Luo3, which makes his translation fluent and vivid. From this point of view, both foreign and native readers will get the same

comprehension of the essay. All in all, Luo successfully translates them if we judge from the perspective of functional equivalence.

Example 4

ST4: 无丝竹之乱耳，无案牍之劳行。(Luo, 2005, p. 58)

Luo4: Without the disturbance of the noisy tunes that jar on the ears, or the solemn burden of reading official documents. (Luo, 2005, p. 58)

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