论文总字数：42040字

摘 要

随着“一带一路”建设的推进，中非传统友谊不断加深，在各领域取得突破性发展。中非贸易往来日益频繁，商务谈判已成为必然。中非商务谈判受政策、经济、文化、宗教等多方面因素的影响。其中，文化是最重要的因素之一。文化是一个鲜明的特征，它在社会发展的长期过程中使一个民族区别于另一个民族。本文使用文献研究法和案例分析法，在回顾前人关于文化差异和商务谈判研究的基础上，从社会礼仪、时间观念、购买力和消费习惯等方面分析了中非文化差异。最后，本文还提出了一些促进双方商务谈判的具体策略。除了尊重当地文化，消除语言障碍，深入了解当地习俗，中国企业家还应该对非洲的时间观念保持耐心和宽容。此外，还应注意提高出口产品的质量，迎合当地市场，遵守法律，坚持平等原则。

关键词：文化差异；商务谈判；应对策略

Content

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 1

2.1 Definition of cultural differences and Hofstede’s framework 1

2.2 Definition of business negotiation 2

2.3 Previous studies on China-Africa cultural differences and business negotiation 3

3. Influences of Cultural Differences in China-Africa Business Negotiations 6

3.1 Differences in social etiquette 6

3.2 Differences in time concept 7

3.3 Differences in purchasing power 10

3.4 Differences in consumption habits 11

4. Corresponding Strategies in China-Africa Business Negotiations 12

4.1 Strategies to deal with differences in social etiquette 12

4.2 Strategies to deal with differences in time concept 12

4.3 Strategies to deal with differences in purchasing power and consumption habits 13

5. Conclusion 14

Works Cited 16

1. Introduction

In October 2000, the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) was held for the first time. Adhered to the principle of equal consultation, the forum intends to enhance mutual understanding, expand consensus, strengthen friendship and promote cooperation. In recent years, China-Africa bilateral relations have gradually deepened. They share the same background, so they have good relationships. China-Africa relations have stood the test of the changing times. At present, in the era of “the Belt and Road”, China-Africa relations are evolving and facing both new opportunities and challenges. Although the strategic mutual trust between the two sides has been continuously deepened and the traditional friendship has been continuously strengthened, there have been collisions and frictions in different areas. Peaceful coexistence and common development between China and Africa have become more and more important. So it is essential and significant to study how to promote effective business negotiations in different culture contexts, which may ensure the success in common development between China and Africa.

This thesis mainly uses literature research method and intends to study the influence of different cultures between China and Africa on business negotiations. To be specific, it compares the cultural differences between China and Africa in terms of social etiquette, time concept, purchasing power and consumption habits, analyzes the embodiment of these differences in business negotiations between China and Africa. This thesis also explores corresponding strategies to promote China-Africa business negotiations, so as to carry out economic and trade cooperation between the two sides successfully.

1. Literature Review
   1. Definition of cultural differences and Hofstede’s framework

Cultural difference refers to the differences caused by different regions and the unique cultures of people in different regions. (Hofstede 5) According to Hofstede, culture is a psychological program shared by people in an environment, which is not an individual characteristic but a psychological program shared by many people with the same education and life experience. (Hofstede 5)

In his study in IBM, Geert Hofstede examined the attitudes and working values of more than 116,000 employers of IBM within more than 40 countries. Based on the data he collected, Hofstede established a five-dimension framework to understand national cultural differences. The dimensions are as follows: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, and long term orientation versus short term orientation. (Hofstede 4)

Power distance refers to the degree to which people of low status in a country or society tolerate unfair events they receive. (Hofstede 6) Uncertainty avoidance refers to how society members deal with the future risk possibilities. (Hofstede 7) Generally speaking, it refers to a country’s philosophical and religious toleration of different propositions. (Hofstede 7) In this respect, Africa is different from China. Although China is a country with religious freedom, the proportion of people who believe in religion is far less than that of African countries. In a culture of low avoidance, such as African countries, there are fewer rules and regulations. At the same time, people are more tolerant of abnormal behaviors and opinions. It is totally different from China, a country with adequate legal system. Therefore, in the later analysis, the thesis emphasizes on the consumption habits and purchasing power of Africans, which are particularly prone to legal accidents.

• 1. Definition of business negotiation

According to the Compact Oxford English Dictionary, to negotiate means: try to reach an agreement or compromise by discussion. According to Iké: To begin with, two elements must normally be present for the negotiation to take place: There must be both common interests and issues of conflict; if there are no common interests, if there is nothing to negotiate about and without conflicting issues, there is nothing to negotiate about. (Akizhanova 514) Common interests and conflicts of interest are the two basic elements of the negotiations. In other words, the negotiation comes into being when the two parties have common interests or conflicts of interest. Conflict of interest means that some people of one party have better outcomes, while others have worse outcomes. (Hofstede 19)

Hofstede summarizes some characteristics of negotiation: First, in a negotiation, there will be two or more parties’ conflict of interest. Second, a negotiation need a common protocol. Third, the initial outcome of a negotiation is uncertain. Fourth, in a negotiation, there needs to be a way of communication between the two sides. Fifth, in a negotiation, both sides have a decision-making leadership structure higher than the negotiators. (Hofstede 19) It is easy to come to the conclusion that business negotiation is a negotiation which takes place in the commercial areas.

Business negotiation is a process that in order to coordinate the relationship between business and meet their needs, people try to find a final settlement of the dispute and reach an agreement and sign the contract through the consultation and the dialogue. (Piao 127)

Yang Zhen, in his book, argues that a whole negotiation can be divided into three phases: the pre-negotiation phase, the face-to-face negotiation phase and the post-negotiation phase. (Yang 16) In the first phase, the negotiators first contact and establish a relationship. Then, in the second phase, the negotiators exchange information and persuasion. In the last phase, concessions and agreements will be made. (Yang 17)

In his book, Marsh claims that psychological factors, legal factors and environmental factors are the three major factors affecting business negotiation. (Marsh 24) Environmental factors can be divided into many sections, such as political situation, social customs, religious beliefs, financial situation, legal system, infrastructure and later supply situation, business habits and climate conditions. (Marsh 28) Only by understanding these influencing factors can Chinese entrepreneurs be more likely to succeed in business negotiations.

• 1. Previous studies on China-Africa cultural differences and business negotiation

Cultural difference is an important factor affecting the development of cooperation between China and Africa. Li Baoping divides traditional black African culture into tribal culture, oral culture and mass culture in his book, which named Tradition and Modernity: African Culture and Political Changes (Li 23). These three types of traditional cultures have deeply rooted influences in Africa, therefore, they have exerted corresponding impacts on business negotiations. Huang Zequan points out in his book, Review and Prospect of China-Africa Relations, that China-Africa economic and trade relations have gone through different stages. (Huang 115) From 1980 to 1999, the relationship between these two sides developed rapidly. Despite slight fluctuations, China-Africa trade has maintained a growing trend on the whole. 2000 to 2009 was the golden age of China-Africa trade. Especially after South Africa gained independence in 1993, trades between China and South Africa developed more rapidly. Since 2010, bilateral trades between these two sides have further developed (Huang 116). It can be seen that the constant understanding and learning of cultural differences have promoted the trade and economic development between these two sides.

In his book The Influence of Cultural Differences on China-Africa Business Negotiations, Zhu Xiaofei, professor of Henan University of Science and Technology, summarizes such cultural factors that influence the business negotiations between China and Africa as social etiquette, time concept, purchase habit, consumption habit and public moral consciousness. (Zhu 242)

In terms of social etiquette, he believes that African countries are economically backward and politically independent for a long time. So they have strong self-esteem and sensitivity, and their self-esteem will be hurt if we show disdain or boredom for frequent and cordial handshakes and hugs with them. (Zhu 242) Many African countries attach great importance to formal norms and like to use letters to express solemnity. In addition, the etiquette of these letters requires proper titles and plain writing. Regardless of the size, companies should be basically equipped with a excellent writing secretary or operator. (Zhu 242)

African people have a very indifferent concept of time, and the concept of punctuality is generally weak regardless of position or education level. This can be confusing to new arrivals to Africa. Zhu believes that this is mainly because many African countries are still in the primary agricultural society stage, so they have slow pace of life, inconvenient transportation and people are full of inertia. (Zhu 242) Zhu thinks Chinese people should be patient when they are negotiating with African businessmen. (Zhu 243)

In terms of purchase habit, African businessmen are generally weak in economy and have poor credit standing. African trade is characterized by small orders, urgent goods and goods varieties. In terms of investment, Africans are not only inefficient and technologically backward, but also lack the knowledge of scientific management of enterprises. Therefore, Chinese entrepreneurs should select business partners not only by their credit standing, but also by their educational background. (Zhu 243)

In terms of consumption habits, most Africans don’t save money. They seem to have little anxiety about the future. (Zhu 243) In today’s society, the pace of life is greatly accelerated, and many people feel the pressure of employment and life pressure. But it seems that Africans still live a carefree life. In fact, Africans are quite particular about clothes. People with certain economic conditions usually wear different clothes according to different occasions. (Zhu 243) So Chinese entrepreneurs should not be too casual in their negotiations with Africa. Africans generally have a strong sense of public morality with distinct love and hate. So Zhu suggests Chinese entrepreneurs to be brave and helpful when they are having a negotiation with Africans. (Zhu 243)

Wang Xiaomeng, who worked in CBMI, shares many similar views with Zhu Xiaofei in her article Cross-cultural Issues and Countermeasures in China-Africa Business Negotiations. On the basis of Zhu’s argument, Wang puts forward a new factor of religious belief, which is also one of the cultural differences that affecting China-Africa business negotiations. She holds the view that different religions have different cultural tendencies and preceptions, which affect African people’s daily work arrangements and social life. In international trade, the more religious beliefs and customs of the host country can be respected and used appropriately, the more successful investment activities can be carried out. (Wang 9)

To sum up, previous researches on the influence of cultural differences between China and Africa on business negotiation only summarized the differences in some aspects, without resorting to sufficient actual cases or giving specific countermeasures. Therefore, this thesis will adopt specific examples and cases to illustrate the influences of cultural differences on China-Africa business negotiations. In addiction, this thesis will recommend some specific strategies as to conduct fluent and effective business negotiations between China and Africa.

3. Influences of Cultural Differences in China-Africa Business Negotiations

There are many cultural differences between China and Africa.Based on Hofstede’s five dimensions of culture, this thesis mainly analyzes the characteristics of African culture from the aspects of social etiquette, time concept, purchasing power and consumption habits, and finds out the differences between Chinese and African cultures, so that Chinese entrepreneurs can successfully conduct business negotiations with African trading partners and carry out trade cooperation between China and Africa.

3.1 Differences in social etiquette

For some historical reasons, African people have strong self-esteem, and they often attach great importance to formal norms and etiquette. If Chinese entrepreneurs don’t pay attention to this in business negotiations, all efforts may be wasted. (Zhu 243)

Chinese people like to be modest and reserved, while Africans like to be enthusiastic and unrestrained. For example, in Africa, a weak handshake is called “bad manners”, which shows a lack of sincerity, and always arouse anger of the other party (Wang 9). In particular, in Algeria, the harder the handshake is, the more respectable it represents. Not only the strength is great, but also the frequency is high.

In western Nigeria, there is a special way of eating: you can’t eat everything, and guests should leave at least one piece on the plate. They even leave the piece for the next day before throwing it into the bin, because they believe that the holy spirit will come and eat that piece. While in China, where people advocate economy, it is believed that food is the achievement of farmers’ hard work, and that the Clean Plate Campaign is quite popular. (Wang 9)

Africans generally believe that when the camera is pointed at something and the lens is taken, the essence of something is absorbed. In contrast, Chinese are casual about using camera. So when it is comes to business negotiation, Chinese people should use cameras more carefully.

In ancient Ethiopia, slaves served with their back to the host or guests. There is a superstition in Ethiopia, that when someone stares at you, either disaster or death will strike you. In Ethiopia, you can’t stare at the locals for a long time when you talk or meet them. However, in China, it is a basic etiquette to keep your eyes on the other person when they are speaking or when you are listening.

African people are hospitable and like to establish good friendship before business negotiation. If they are friends who have worked with each other for many times, they will call each other brother, hug each other warmly and greet each other constantly. (Zhu 242) When writing business letters, they value the form of the letter a lot. Their letter will be formal, carefully worded.

All the above examples illustrate that the social etiquette and customs of African people are more or less influenced by different religious believes and philosophical ideas. According to Hofstede’s framework, it is safe to draw the conclusion that Africans belong to the culture with low uncertainty avoidance index. Their cultural environment is tolerant of abnormal behaviors and opinions. At the same time, their sensitivity to self-esteem shows a higher power distance than Chinese. Comparatively speaking, China has a higher power distance than some European countries, because the Europeans pay more attention to individual ability while Chinese like to make progress by cooperation of many people. However, Africans usually seem to be more eager to be accepted by others than Chinese. Their love and insistence on living in groups also some what reflect their preference for collectivism.

3.2 Differences in time concept

The concept of time is gradually formed under certain social and historical conditions. Africa is a traditional agricultural society, and farmers usually work from sunrise to sunset. Their concept of time derives from the observation and understanding of human activities and nature. (Zhu 243) They often associate time closely with agriculture, including fishing, hunting, husbandry, farming and celestial phenomena, describing or expressing abstract time based on specific events rather than measuring it by a clock. Therefore, they only have a poor concept of time and cannot calculate accurately. (Gui 13) It is this slow pace of life that makes their slow view of time and has also restricted the development of their country’s society to some extent. So, in a slow developing economy, there are many factors that keep them from being punctual, such as cars, roads, poor traffic, etc., which can ruin your trip. As a result, many foreigners can’t help but sigh that arriving on time doesn’t depend on whether you leave early, but whether you leave at the right time. In their business negotiations, meetings can last for hours, with most of the time devoted to polite conversations and coffee. (Chang 48)

In Nairobi, the capital of Kenya, the local people have a rigid concept of time. It is impossible to work overtime for more than 8 hours, let alone on Saturday and Sunday. In this almost 100% Christian place, they would rather give up the opportunity to earn a few hundred dollars a day to go to church. (Gui 14) In Kenya, there is a saying that all the Chinese people at the Chinese engineering team’s construction site are prisoners who have been sent to Africa by China. This myth can be traced back to the Kenyan belief that Chinese construction workers work day and night without rest, and they must be prisoners without freedom at home. (Gui 14) In Egypt, the local people have the habit of praying in the morning and in the afternoon. Each prayer takes 15 minutes, which will affect the normal production if not well arranged. There are big differences in values between China and Africa. South Africans think they may die tomorrow, so live for today. (Liu 175)

Compared with many western countries, Chinese people may have a poor sense of time, but compared with African countries, China should be considered as a “punctual” country. Although China is also a traditional agricultural country, 70 years ago Chinese people did not have clocks and watches, ignored the economic benefits of time, and had little sense of time. However, with the reform and opening up and the development of social economy, social competition has become increasingly fierce. (Liu 175)

If Chinese go to a party at six, it should be common sense to say “on time” when we arrive at six. But in many countries, due to different ways of thinking, there are also different understandings of “on time”. For example, in formal occasions, people from Britain and North America usually arrive on time, not more than 5 minutes of the time, but in Africa it’s normal to be late for half an hour to an hour. (Zhu 243) So are the African students. By contrast, Chinese college students have a strong sense of time. A survey conducted by Gui Tao asked them, “When will you arrive at your boss’s office if are you asked to arrive in about ten minutes?” A whopping 95 percent of them answered that they will arrive on time or five minutes early, and only 5 percent of them answered that they may be late for a while. (Gui 13) It can be seen that Chinese college students attach great importance to the concept of punctuality. And they will usually be early for it. Africans tend to be at least half an hour late. “What will happen if you make an appointment with your classmates for an outing and meeting at exactly 7 o’clock while you arrive at 7:05?” 93 percent of survey respondents said they were “sorry” or embarrassed. Only 7 percent of them were indifferent. (Gui 13)

Chang Junxia, a postgraduate student at the School of International Education of Harbin Normal University, shared her experience on punctuality of Chinese students and African students. She enrolled a course called Chinese Culture Overview, which required Chinese students to form a group with foreign students to complete the study tasks. She was in a group with three African students, all from Burundi. For a group discussion, she made an appointment with her African classmates to meet at 4 p.m. on a weekend at her apartment. In order to prevent them from forgetting the things discussed in the group and the appointed time, Chang reminded them to have a group discussion at 4 p.m. through WeChat at 1 p.m. that day. Chang lives in a dormitory close to the international students’ apartment, about a two-minute walk away. In order to avoid being late and prepare for the discussion, she left the dormitory at 3:50 and arrived at the reception room on the first floor of the international student apartment in advance, waiting to meet African students. When four o’clock came, no one came. Thinking that it might be the African students who had been delayed, she continued to wait for about ten minutes, but there was still no one there. At that time, Chang called the three African students, and send WeChat messages, but only one of them could be reached. He said he would come at once. The other two students could not be reached. More than five minutes later, the first student came slowly, he did not say anything about his. As the other two African students had not come yet, he telephoned them and finally got in touch. Then they were waiting for two other African students to arrive. When they arrived, again nothing was said, and there was no embarrassment on their faces for being late, as if all was well and nothing had happened. By that time, twenty-five minutes had passed before they began their group discussion. (Chang 48)

Kenyans in East Africa are unpunctual. Even the UN agencies there are also seem to be infected, and press conferences are often postponed for local reporters who attend on “African time”. In South African slang, “African time” is “Unpunctuality”. In west Africa, foreigners abbreviated “Western Africa International Time” to “WAIT” to taunt locals for being unpunctual. Actually, it is the entrenched perception that “There is no hurry in Africa” which causes African unpunctuality. (Gui 13)

The cases and examples showed above reveal the differences of Chinese concept of time and that of Africans. In Hofstede’s theory, African people are in a culture with high power distance and low uncertainty avoidance index. That’s why Africans are usually intolerant of overtime working and are even not ashamed to be late for important meetings.

Of course, Africa is undergoing rapid developments and some Africans have a stronger sense of time and their work efficiency has been gradually improved. At an African Union press conference, Chinese reporters were, of course, half an hour late, only to end up awkwardly setting up the cameras while everyone watched (Gui 15). But it is noteworthy that any change would require a gradual process, and that it would take time for more Africans to change their time concept.

3.3 Differences in purchasing power

In general, the development and economic strength of most African countries are inferior to that of China, so the difference in purchasing power between these two sides is quite apparent.

The economic backwardness in South Africa leads to the low consumption level of people. Therefore, when Chinese do business with them, it is common that Africans buy very few things, and sometimes nothing can be used as a credit guarantee. Due to the poor concept of time, their efficiency is relatively low too. The credit of African businessmen is generally not guaranteed, and more often than not even the articles written in the contract may not be admitted afterwards. International trade settlement methods are often difficult to use in Africa. Chinese banks generally do not accept letters of credit issued directly by African banks unless they are branches of large international banks in Africa.

Liu Tao, who worked in China Civil Engineering Construction Corporation (CCECC) provides a case of his company’s business negotiations with Africa. The case involves an interstate highway reconstruction project in a southern African country, for constructing a two-way and four-lane highway under a unit price contract. (Liu 424) The total amount of the contract is 34.2 billion local currency (about 220 million US dollars). The first phase of the project is 20 km highway in State A, and the second phase is 30 km highway in State B . The project began in 2010. At the end of 2013, the project was suspended and the contract was terminated. One of the reasons is that the African owner of the highway could not provide enough funds. (Liu 424)

From this case, it can be clearly seen that the purchasing power and credit of many African enterprises and even some countries have great problems. CCECC was responsible for organizing and implementing the famous Tanzania-Zambia Railway Project in the 1960s and 1970s. (Tanzania-Zambia Railway Project is the first aid project from China to Africa). Such a well-known company with a lot of experience is still nearly at risk in this project. Due to the strong risk awareness of the project team and the appropriate risk management, the termination of the contract has not caused any loss to the interests of Chinese enterprise.

The African owner of the highway can’t afford the construction of the highway but still asked Chinese team to work for three years until Chinese team found out their African business partner had financial problem. The owner may not want to cheat the Chinese team. Africans usually can’t stand the delayed gratification of material, emotional, and social needs, which is in line with Hofstede’s short term orientation. Chinese entrepreneurs should always be careful when negotiating with African people.

3.4 Differences in consumption habits

Most people in Africa do not have the habit of saving money. In today’s informational society, the pace of people’s life is greatly accelerated. Many people feel that they have great employment pressure. However, Africans still seem to live a carefree life. So in the process of sales, we can find that African people who have a certain purchasing power are quite extravagant and generally do not care about small gains and losses. (Zhu 243)

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