论文总字数：39768字

摘 要

随着世界经济的不断发展，人们在谋求本国经济利益的同时，也积极寻求发展跨国经济的机遇。在跨国经济交往中，文化差异带来的问题使商务交际时常面临着种种障碍，尤其凸显在商务谈判的过程中。因此，如何有效地进行商务沟通来促使商务谈判的成功是各个跨国公司所关注的核心问题。本文旨在通过霍夫斯泰德的文化维度理论来分析文化差异所带来的商务谈判的冲突及其产生的原因，并提出恰当的应对策略，以期对国际商务交往的顺利进行提供可行之策。

关键词: 文化差异；霍夫斯泰德文化维度理论；跨文化交际；商务谈判；策略

Contents

1.Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 2

2.1 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory 2

2.2 Research on cross-cultural business negotiations 5

3. Reasons for conflicts in Business Negotiations from the perspective of Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory 7

3.1 Conflicts in cross-cultural business negotiations 7

3.2 Reasons for conflicts in cross-cultural business negotiations 10

4. Strategies of Applying Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory in Cross-cultural Business Negotiations 11

4.1 Seek common ground while reserving differences 12

4.2 Improve enterprises’ comprehensive competitiveness 13

5. Conclusion 14

Works Cited 16

1.Introduction

With the development of economic globalization, people pay much attention to the rules of international business negotiations. In order to make a successful business negotiation, it is very important to analyze the barriers in business negotiations and try to solve the conflicts. Therefore, many scholars try to study the topic of international business negotiations from various perspectives. Based on Hofstede’s Theory of Cultural Dimensions, this thesis analyzes various causes of business negotiations conflicts and proposes corresponding solutions.

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, based on the words and deeds of people in different cultural backgrounds, discusses the role of the mechanism of cultural differences. This cultural differences mechanism distinguishes people from different cultural backgrounds and makes them form their own cultural circles. People in different cultural circles show their unique ways of thinking, psychological process and behaviors in the specific environment. People from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other, that is, the collision between diverse cultures. At this point, the cross-cultural collision will cause a communicative conflict. Hofstede(Hofstede 2010) summarized the manifestations of cultural differences and formed the theory of cultural dimensions. The cultural dimensions theory is mainly divided into six aspects: the power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, long-term versus the short-term, self-indulgence versus restraint. The six aspects will be detailed in the following sections.

Many people have studied the international business negotiations, and some scholars have written papers on this subject. Some scholars stressed the differences between China and the United States in business negotiations through Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory. They focused on the negotiation conflicts caused by the cultural differences between China and the United States, and proposed that only by mastering the negotiation skills and understanding the impact of the cultural difference could the misunderstanding be handled in a timely manner. Nevertheless, it is not enough to put forward views on the problem of strategies.

In some scholars’ papers, they explained the causes of conflicts in business negotiations through Hofsted’s Cultural Dimensions theory, and pointed out that business negotiations are a cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use cross-cultural communication skills reasonably to deal with conflicts in a timely manner. They believes that analyzing possible causes of conflict will prevent the negotiations from failing. Conflicts are inevitable in the process of business negotiation, so it is necessary to prepare well before negotiations to achieve a successful negotiation.

Based on Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, the thesis pays much attention to the strategies for conflicts in business negotiations, focuses on the classifications of cultural differences to make people realize the importance of cultural differences in business negotiations that contribute to the success of the negotiations and achieve the win-win cooperation.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory

2.1.1 Formation of Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory was proposed by Dutch psychologist Hofstede to measure the differences between people’s words and deeds in different cultural backgrounds. He believes that culture is a psychological process which is shared by people in a specific environment, and this cultural difference mechanism can distinguish people from different cultural backgrounds. In his experiment, conducted between 1967 and 1973, was based on a large-scale survey of cultural values by IBM, a leading multinational corporation. His team conducted two rounds of surveys of IBM employees in various countries, and distributed more than 116,000 questionnaires in 72 countries using more than two dozen languages and collected answers. The survey focused on national differences in values among employees across countries. In 1980, Hofstede published a book called Culture’s Consequences: The Transnational Comparison of Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations. Later, he adopted the theory proposed by Penmac and other scholars and summarized six dimensions of values: the power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, long-term versus short-term and self-indulgence versus restraint.( Li 126)

2.1.2 Content of the six dimensions of values

Hofstede(Hofstede 2010) divides his theory of cultural values into six dimensions: the power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, long-term versus short-term, self-indulgence versus restraint. The following is a detailed explanation of the contents of the six dimensions.

The first dimension is the power distance. It refers to the acceptance of unequal distribution of power by people of low status in society or organizations. There are great differences in this power distance dimension due to different understanding of the scope of power in different countries.( Li 126) Westerners pay less attention to power but more attention to personal ability. They stress equality of opportunity, status, fair competition and ability. For example, some countries like Denmark, Australia, the United States, Canada have relatively small power distance.Their employees do not agree to accept the rule that independent privileges enjoyed by the management of the company. They value the equality of rights and personal ability more. The relationship between employees and management is mutual respect, rather than employees’ absolute obedience to management"s orders. Asians attach more importance to the binding force of power, stressing that those with great power enjoy privileges and certain authority. For example, some countries such as China, Japan, South Korea and Malaysia have relatively large power distance. Status symbols are very important. The relationship between their employees and the management level of the company is an unequal relationship between subordinates and superiors. Employees are required to obey the orders of the management absolutely and unconditionally, while superior leaders are entitled to enjoy privileges.( Qian 50)

The second dimension is uncertainty avoidance. It refers to the degree of tolerance and avoidance of uncertainty in a society. People with high uncertainty avoidance tend to be less affected by uncertain things. They take risks and hate too many rules. So they are good at turning uncertainty into positive authority through practice. For example, the United States and Australia are countries with low uncertainty avoidance. They are full of confidence and exploration spirit and tend to explore new things by themselves. People with low uncertainty avoidance tend to be easily influenced by events and afraid of trying, so they usually do not like to take risks, but prefer to follow the plan and keep things within their control, so as to avoid some uncontrollable accidents that may occur. They believe in authority, so they are more willing to resort to professional knowledge and authoritative opinions to avoid some unpredictable things. For example, China and Germany are countries with high uncertainty avoidance. They are cautious, sedate and like to follow formal procedures.

The third dimension is individualism versus collectivism. It refers to whether people value individual interests more or collective interests when dealing with a matter. Hofstede points out that the degree of integration of individual and collective is the standard to distinguish individualism from collectivism. Generally speaking, western countries pursue the realization of individual value, such as the United States, Britain and Canada, which all advocate individualism. In the individualistic society, their collective relationship is loose, people value individual interests more than collective interests, and they are less dependent on each other. Collectivist countries, such as China and Japan, paying more attention to the protection of collective interests. They will see the individual as a member of the social collective, and the relationship between the individual and the collective is close. Members take pride in standing up for the collective at the expense of their own.The internal social relations of a country that emphasizes collectivism are harmonious and members are highly interdependent.

The fourth dimension is masculinity versus femininity. It refers to the spirit with typical male characteristics, such as rationality, perseverance and courage, or based on typical female characteristics, such as euphemism and sensibility. Male cultural societies such as Japan and Mexico tend to be tough, decisive and less willing to make concessions when they encounter conflicts in negotiations. Female cultural societies such as Denmark and Norway, when dealing with conflicts, tend to make appropriate concessions and try to make the deadlock turn into a harmonious situation.

The fifth dimension is long-term versus short-term. It refers to the preference for long-term interests or short-term interests. People who make decisions based on long-term goals can achieve long-term success but act more slowly. People who make decisions based on short-term goals are highly efficient and can timely obtain current interests, but lack long-term goals. Chinese culture is oriented to long-term interests. People tend to focus on long-term goals in negotiation. They prefer to perceive things as a whole, and pay less attention to parts. Once an agreement is reached, the two sides should work together to achieve this long-term goal by seeking common ground while reserving difference. American culture is more short-term oriented, and they will materialize each part to achieve these small goals one by one.

The sixth dimension is self-indulgence versus restraint. ( This point is the most recently added dimension) It refers to the degree to which people control their needs and desires.The higher the degree of control, the stronger the constraint ability, and the lower the control ability, the lower the constraint ability.

2.2 Research on cross-cultural business negotiations

2.2.1 Cross-cultural business negotiation

An international business negotiation stems from international economic exchanges, which is an indispensable step to promote economic cooperation between countries. In order to facilitate the transaction, people negotiate the disputes arising from the trade, so as to achieve a mutually satisfactory situation. The world economy is inseparable from business negotiations, which is an important means for enterprises to realize their economic interests and obtain information on the international situation. Generally speaking, a successful business negotiation requires the following conditions:

1. The main objective is to achieve the economic interests of both parties. Only when the economic interests of the parties are satisfied will the other non-economic interests be considered. Therefore, whether economic benefits are realized is an important criterion to evaluate a successful negotiation or not.
2. Negotiations must aim at achieving the win-win situation for both sides. The two sides have consulted on the actual conflicts of interest or losses to seek a common balance to ensure the agreement be reached before further work be carried out.
3. Negotiations should adhere to the principle of justice, legality and openness. Both parties shall act in strict accordance with the obligations of both parties under the contract, and shall not resort to fraud or deception, and shall be frank and open. Only a strict and fair negotiation can promote the cooperation between the two sides and accumulate a long friendship.

2.2.2 Research on cross-cultural business negotiations

Many scholars have studied cross-cultural business negotiation from different perspectives. The following is a brief account of the research topics of some scholars.

Wang Lizhuo (Wang 59) pointed out in her paper that enterprises can hold regular cross-cultural training lectures to improve the cultural sensitivity of negotiators. Lectures and case studies can better understand the phenomenon of cultural differences in cross-cultural communications. It is also useful to conduct simulated business negotiations with foreign business personnel in order to improve the negotiators’ cross-cultural communications skills. Here, she proposed specific cases to solve conflicts in cross-cultural negotiations. However, improving negotiation skills is only one aspect of conflict resolution. This thesis discusses the causes and solutions of conflicts based on Hofsted’s Cultural Dimensions Theory .

Chen Zhenfeng and Liu Xianfu’s paper mainly discuss the enlightenment of power distance to intercultural communications in Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory. They pointed out that whether the right distance should be highlighted deliberately in the negotiation process depends on the specific communication environment. People from different cultural backgrounds have different degrees of tolerance for the power distance and need to solve problems based on different cultural backgrounds. (Chen amp; Liu 132)

Le Guobin’s paper discusses the choice of international business negotiations strategies from the perspective of cultural dimensions. He concluded that the theory of cultural dimensions can make negotiators more aware of the cultural thinking patterns of both sides and make them better use negotiations strategies to solve problems on the basis of respecting and understanding the cultures of both sides. It inspires us to solve conflicts caused by cultural differences from different cultural perspectives. (Le 96)

In his thesis, Wang Chao makes a comparative analysis from the perspective of the cultural differences between China and the United States, and lists the embodiment of the cultural differences between China and the United States in business negotiations. Combined with Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, his paper analyzes the cultural differences between the two countries and interprets the different negotiations styles of negotiators. Therefore, it puts forward how to grasp each others characteristics in cross-cultural business negotiations so as to eliminate the influence of cultural differences and achieve the win-win cooperation between the two sides.（Wang 42）

The thesis discusses the choice of international business negotiation strategy from the cultural dimensions. On the basis of respecting and understanding different culture, the theory of cultural dimensions enables negotiators to better understand each cultural thinking modes and better use negotiation strategies to solve problems. It inspires us to solve the conflicts from different cultural perspectives. Therefore, based on Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, the paper proposes corresponding solutions to the conflicts caused by cultural differences in business negotiations.

3. Reasons for Conflicts in Business Negotiations from the Perspectives of Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory is put forward according to different cultural backgrounds. Only by understanding cultural differences can we better understand people’s thinking patterns and value judgments under different cultural backgrounds. Cultural differences are one of the main causes of cross-cultural business negotiations conflicts, such as cultural backgrounds, ways of thinking, the language expression, living habits, values and other aspects. The following parts will analyze the causes of cross-cultural business negotiations conflicts from the perspectives of Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory combined with specific cases.

3.1 Conflicts in cross-cultural business negotiations

In the following parts, the thesis takes Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory as the foothold to analyzes the causes of business negotiations conflicts with specific cases. First of all, the thesis analyzes a case of failure in cross-cultural communications. A university in the United States and a university in China want to develop a cooperative exchange program. A professor from the American college of education is visiting a Chinese university to discuss relevant issues. Before going to China, he had discussed this matter with the person in charge of his college and thought it was a feasible suggestion, hoping that he could communicate with the college student in China. After that, he had an effective communication with the head of the relevant school of this university in China, who also thought this was a good proposal. The American professor thought that the approval of the Chinese person in charge indicated that the exchange program between the two schools had been reached, but he did not know that the cooperation must be approved by the Chinese school leaders. As a result, the Chinese school leaders believed that the project leader of the American university was so hasty about this matter that they did not have the sincerity to cooperate with each other, so they cancelled the unreasonable cooperative relationship. From the above case analysis, the establishment of a cooperative relationship between schools can also be seen as a manifestation of the establishment of business contacts between enterprises. The lines of authority and power in corporate America are less pronounced. In the case of project cooperation between the two schools, the colleges of the American school have certain rights to make their own reasonable decisions, which do not necessarily go through the top leadership of the school. Therefore, when the American professor went to the Chinese school to discuss cooperation, he thought that he only needed to discuss with the person in charge of the relevant college. But the Chinese enterprise upper and lower levels boundary is clear, the power center is prominent. During the project cooperation between the two schools, the Chinese school must go through the top leadership of the school, and the cooperation may be considered carefully. (Kuang 229)

The failed case shows that the two cultural dimensions of the power distance, individualism and collectivism cause conflicts in cross-cultural communications. At the business negotiation tables, many American negotiators believe that their Chinese counterparts are inefficient, forward and backward, and tend to detour or even be dishonest. Chinese negotiators, on the other hand, believing that most of their American counterparts show an aggressive attitude during the negotiation process, and they are easily agitated, unsparing and impersonal. However, the two cultural dimensions of the power distance, individualism and collectivism are the reasons why the two sides of the negotiation have such a stereotyped impression. If the two sides do not understand each other, the conflict will result in the collapse of the negotiation. Chinese negotiators are deeply influenced by the high power distance and collectivism, so they can’t give the final result of the negotiation on their own. They need to work together to achieve the consensus of all team members, which is to put the collective interests in a high position. They need to consult their superiors and receive orders from their superiors before they can give the final negotiation result. Chinese negotiators often play the role of executing the will of their superiors because of their high power distance and collectivism. Thus bringing Americans a misunderstanding of insincerity and low efficiency. Americans have a low sense of power distance, and they enjoy the individualistic way of doing things, so they will show strong decision-making power in the negotiation process. A lower sense of the power distance enables team members to maintain their independence and negotiate with their opponents as equals without having to ask their superiors. However their style in the eyes of Chinese negotiators is precisely the recklessness and emotional display.

Secondly, uncertainty avoidance. At the business negotiation table, American negotiators often show high uncertainty avoidance behavior. American culture believes that it is reasonable and aboveboard to seek and safeguard the legitimate interests of individuals and enterprises. As the thesis said before, Americans attach great importance to their own interests. Besides, they have a high degree of uncertainty avoidance in language. And Chinese negotiators showed a low uncertainty avoidance behavior, because the Chinese Confucian culture attach importance to the harmony, courteous, shy expression and coupled with a relatively low degree of uncertainty avoidance on language. They negotiating contradictions encountered in the face culture with fuzzy language to achieve a harmonious situation.（Corina 2000）

Thirdly, long-term orientation and short-term orientation. Western cultures are deeply influenced by Christ’s thought, focusing on people’s peace and happiness at present, rather than worrying about unknown variables. In the western culture with low long-term orientation, people are more willing to consume in advance, venture capital, and be full of the spirit of adventure and gambling. Chinese culture is deeply influenced by Confucianism and has a high long-term orientation. There is a lot of focus on the future, and people often plan ahead for a rainy day, which is reflected in the savings behavior of Chinese people. According to the above analysis, at the business negotiation table, the negotiation team with a high long-term orientation tends to adopt the consensus strategy, sacrificing some short-term interests for the long-term goal, and put the collective interests in the highest position at the same time. Short-term oriented negotiating teams focus on short-term goals and do their best to achieve them. They are detail-oriented and good at breaking down their immediate goals into small pieces to achieve their benefits step by step.

The thesis mainly summarizes the performance of possible conflict from the process of a negotiation. From the beginning to the proceeding to the end of the negotiations, a courtesy of greeting, communication modes, negotiating styles, national personalities and characteristics are all influence the generation of conflict to some extent. The reasons for the conflicts will be further explained in the following paragraphs.

3.2 Reasons for conflicts in cross-cultural business negotiations

Given that conflicts in business negotiations are all caused by cultural differences, the reasons can be subdivided as follows: firstly, cultural differences affect communication modes. It includes both verbal and nonverbal communications. Language communication is mainly embodied in dialogue. Chinese people tend to speak euphemistically and indirectly, and often like to compliment each other before coming to the point. However, westerners tend to cut straight to the point and express their own opinions. Nonverbal communication is mainly manifested as body language. The same body movement in different cultures can convey different information and cultural connotation, or even express the opposite meaning, has an important impact on the negotiations.

Secondly, cultural differences affect thinking patterns. The Chinese emphasize moderation and justice, and believe that balance is the best state of everything. This mode of thinking is just like the uncertainty avoidance in Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory. Chinese people are good at harmonious thinking mode, so they will not actively explore uncertain things, and avoid to a low degree. Moreover, Chinese people are good at comprehensive thinking, and they are used to grasp all aspects of things on the whole. However, westerners’ thinking patterns are intuitive, logical, and willing to explore the unknown, so the degree of uncertainty avoidance is high. They like analytical thinking and pay attention to details. To sum up, Chinese attach importance to the mastery of the overall principle, while westerners attach importance to the analysis of the logical process.（Erkki 2015）

Thirdly, cultural differences reflect national character characteristics. This is mainly manifested in value orientation, interpersonal relationship, customs and so on. Chinese people attach importance to harmonious interpersonal relationships, and try to avoid conflicts in negotiations. In interpersonal communication, Chinese people tend to lower their personal attitudes, especially respect for their elders. As the saying goes, hands do not play smiling face. Harmony and respect for the elderly is a feature of Chinese culture. Westerners pay attention to rational behavior and do not harm personal interests. They focus on equal status and communicate from the perspective of equality. The cultural dimension of Hofstede’s power distance theory illustrates this well. China has a large power distance, so it emphasizes superior status. In contrast, westerners have a strong sense of equality, so they do not pay much attention to expanding the power distance, but emphasize the upper status of the capable.

Fourthly, cultural differences affect value orientation.The value orientation starting point of China and western countries is different. The Chinese put things in the overall situation,and pay attention to collective interests and stress principles. Westerners pay attention to the perspective of personal interests. They are good at seeing things in details. The Chinese nation has a strong sense of self-restraint when it sets out from its long-term interests and goals. Western countries tend to enjoy the short term and focus on living in the moment. Therefore, they pursue short-term interests and are highly indulgent. In the degree of masculinity and femininity, Chinese society pursues harmony, so the spirit of female characteristics is more prominent. Western society pays attention to individual competition and pursues individual interests, so competition dogmatism with male characteristics is strong.

In view of the above phenomenons, the causes of the conflict in business negotiations are analyzed in combination with Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, aiming at providing guidance for the following strategies.

4. Strategies of Applying Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory in Cross-cultural Business Negotiations

A successful business negotiation cannot be achieved without adequate preparation and timely reflection. Adequate preparation in advance is likely to avoid the occurrence of conflicts so as to achieve twice the result with half the effort. The prompt reflection after the event is a sufficient summary of the negotiation, which can lay a good foundation for the next negotiation. Based on Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, the thesis proposes that the corresponding business negotiations strategies are summarized in two aspects. On the one hand, the international background requires us to start from the cultural perspective, emphasize the respect for cultural differences and build up cultural confidence. On the other hand, enterprise competition requires us to integrate all aspects of skills, improve enterprise competitive strength, and fight well prepared battles.Research on cultural differences and cultural conflict solving purpose is to understand the opponent and know yourself to better development.

4.1 Seek common ground while reserving differences

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