论宋明理学对明清乡村自治制度的影响外文翻译资料
2022-12-08 11:21:59
lt;The spirit of traditional Chinese Lawgt;
Geoffrey MacCormack
- The Conservative and Symbolic Spirit of the Law
Neo-Confucian thinkers and statesment looked at the ruler-subject relationship primarily from the point of view of the duties of the subjet. This did not mean that rulers regarded themselves as devoid of obligation. Most saw their task as that of promoting the welfare of the people. But they did not see themselves as accountable to the people. The ruler was the intermediary between the people and heavens. It was to heaven that he was accountable, and it was heaven who might withdraw the mandate from a tyrannical and oppressive dynasty. The rulerrsquo;s attitude toward the people wa that of a vastly superior being who, through acts of benevolence and kindness, sought to improve their lot and secure their happiness. In return, the absolute duty of the people was that of loyalty characterized by submission and obedience. Neo-Confucian orthodoxy, as in the quotation from Chrsquo;eng Hao, made a strong association between the duty of the son to be filial and the duty of the subject to be filial.
Legal recongnition of the subjectsrsquo; duty of loyalty is found primarily in the offenses of rebellion, great sedition, and treason that head the list of the ten abominations. These offenses in all dynasties attracted the harshest punishments, but one can detect an increase in the severity of the rules adopeted by the Ming and Chrsquo;ing legislations. In Trsquo;ang law, for example, rebellion, defined as plotting to endanger the state,attracted the following punishments: those who had engaged in the plot were to be beheaded, the father and sons aged 16 or above of the principal offenders were to be strangled, their sons aged 15 or below, mother, daughters (neither married nor engaged), wife and concubines (whether their own or their sons), paternal grandfather, grandsons by sons, and brothers and sisters were all to be forfeit to the state as slaves. Their paternal uncles and nephews in the male line were to be exiled to three thousand li. The shu-i commentary stresses the position of the ruler as the father of his people:”The king occupies the position of most honourable position and receives heavenrsquo;s decrees. Like heaven and earth, he acts to shelter and support, thus serving as the father and mother of the masses. As his subjects they must be loyal and filial. However, should they dare to cherish wickedness and have rebellious hearts, they will run counter to heavenrsquo;s constancy and violate human principle.
When we compare the Ming and Chrsquo;ing law, we see that the severity of the punishment for rebellion has been significantly increased. Not only is the death penalty extended to a wider class of persion, but the range of relatives selected for punishment is greater. Those involved in the plot are to be put to death by slicing. The paternal grandfather, fathers, sons, grandsons in the male line, brothers, and other males living in the same household, whether of the same surname or not, paternal uncles and nephews in the male line, if aged 16 or above, are to be beheaded. Males falling within the above description, if aged 15 or below, the mother, sisters, daughters (unless married or engaged), wife and concubines of the principal offenders as well as those of those of their sons are to be given as slaves to deserving officials.
Late Chrsquo;ing law took a somewhat more lenient attitude by decreasing the number of relatives exposed to the death penalty. A substatute, introduced in 1801 and subsequently revised on a number of occasions, in its final form provided that the sons and grandsons of the principal offenders, where it was clear that they had no knowledge of the facts, were to be castracted and given as slaves to the officials and soldiers of the newly acquired frontier regions. Other male relatives not involved in the plot were to be enslaved but not castrated. Although the male relatives of the plotters now escaped death, they were to be subject to a mutilation that had not been part of the regular legal system since the Han dynasty.
The explanatory article to the Chrsquo;ing article states that the atrocity of the act of plotting rebellion is extreme, and hence the punishment is the most terrible. The breach of duty on the part of the subject is in fact a revolt against heaven itself, and no indulgence or laxity is possible. The severity of the Ming and Chrsquo;ing rules may be explicable in part simply through a natural desire on the part of rules to safeguard their position with all the means at their disposal, including the use of the most draconian punishments. Yet, it also seems likely that the stronger conception of loyalty induced by the Neo-Confucian analysis of the relationship between ruler and subject played a part. The failure to show loyalty was so fundamental a breach of the individualrsquo;s natural duty that only the severest possible punishment constituted an adequate response, a position reflected in Chrsquo;ing commentary. One may readily see a parallel between the treatment in Ming and Chrsquo;ing law of the disloyal subject and the unfilial son.
- The Fundamental Family Roles
The slight acquaintance with the penal codes reveals the fact that the principle of equality before the law did not operate in traditional China. The subjects of the emperor were not treated alike by the law.For any given offense one person might be punished more heavily----sometimes significantly more----than another person who to all appearances had committed the same offense. In fact, the offenses were not regarded as the same because the relationship between the offender and victim in the two cases was different. One factor that determined the punishment was the status of the offender in relation to the victim. At the broadest level this involved consideration of which was “senior” and which “junior,” as measured by the family, class
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lt;The spirit of traditional Chinese Lawgt;
Geoffrey MacCormack
3.The Conservative and Symbolic Spirit of the Law
新儒学思想家和政治家主要是从事物的职责点来看待主客关系,这并不意味着统治者认为自己缺乏义务,大多数统治者看到了他们促进人民福祉的任务。但是,他们并不认为自己要对人民负责。统治者是人民和天地之间的媒介。统治者要对上天负责,谁也不可能从一个残暴和压迫王朝撤销授权。统治者对人民的态度是一种优越的行为,通过仁慈和善良的行为,寻求提高他们的幸福和保障他们的幸福。作为回报,人民的绝对责任是绝对忠诚和绝对服从。新儒家正统,引用程颢的话说,取得了儿子的责任之间有很强的关联,要在子女孝顺和主体孝顺的责任间制造一个非常强大的联系。
法律承认,主体的忠诚义务主要是在反叛、叛乱和头十行列表的行为中被发现的。这些罪行在历代受到最严厉的惩罚,在明清立法立法中,相关规则的严重程度有所增加。唐代的法律,例如,叛乱,被定义为阴谋危害国家,会受到以下处罚:那些从事阴谋活动被斩杀的人,16岁或以上的主要罪犯的父亲和儿子将被勒死,他们的儿子如果年龄为15岁或以下,其母亲,女儿(既没有结婚,也没有订婚),妻子和嫔妃(无论是自己的或儿子的),祖父,儿子和兄弟姐妹、孙子都被国家征用作为奴隶。他们的叔伯侄子中的男系都被放逐到三千里之外的地方。
The shu-i的评论强调统治者作为人民之父的地位:“王者占据着最尊贵的地位,并得到天堂的法令。就像天和地,他庇护和支持把他当做父亲和母亲的群众。作为他的臣民,他们必须忠诚和孝顺。然而,如果他们敢于去珍惜邪恶和有叛逆的心,他们将违背上天的坚贞和侵犯人权的原则。当比较明清法律的时候我们可以看到,惩罚叛乱的严重程度已显著上升。不仅是死刑扩展到更广泛的人群,而且相关亲属处罚的范围也更大。那些参与阴谋的人将被碎尸万段。生活在同一家庭里面的男性,祖父,父亲,儿子等,或者是统一家庭的其他兄弟,不论是否同姓,如果年龄为16岁或以上,皆会被斩首。上面描述的男性中,如果年龄是15岁或以下,他的母亲,姐妹,女儿(除非结婚或订婚),他们都将被给予官员作为奴隶。
晚清法律采取了较为宽容的态度,减少死刑涉及到的亲属数量。一个数据显示,在1801年推出,并随后修订了多次,在其最后的形式提供的儿子和主犯,其中很明显,他们没有了解事实的孙子,都被castracted并作为奴隶给定新收购的边境地区的官员和士兵。没有参与阴谋的其他男性亲属是被奴役而不是阉割。虽然这些男性亲属现在逃过一死,但是他们将受到那些不属于汉代正规法律体系的一部分切割。
清朝有解释性的文章指出,密谋造反的行为是极端的暴行,因此惩罚是最可怕的。关于这个问题的一部分的违约责任,其实是对上天的反抗,是不可能放纵或松弛的。对明清规则的严重性的解释的是,通过规则实现自然的愿望,以保障自己的地位与其所拥有的一切手段,其中包括使用最严厉的处罚。然而,新儒家分析,这也很可能是由君臣之间的关系所诱导出的强大的理念。清代有一个评论反映道,未能显示忠诚违反天职最根本的因素,只有严厉的惩罚可能得到一个适当的回应。人们可以很容易地看到明朝与清朝法律体系在处理不忠不孝的事情上面存在的关联。
5、The Fundamental Family Roles
在传统中国,法律还未建立起来的时候,刑法揭示了一个相近的事实,即平等的法律的原则。皇帝的臣民并没有受到法律的惩罚,对于任何特定的进攻,一个人可能会受到更严重的惩罚,有时也会有更多的攻击,而不是所有的人都犯了同样的罪行。事实上,罪行不被视为相同的,因为在两案中,罪犯和受害者之间的关系是不同的。决定处罚的一个因素是相对于被害人犯罪者的地位。在最广泛的层面这涉及其中的考虑是“前辈”和“小字辈”,由家庭,阶级或构成中国传统社会的行政层级测量。在家庭的经营原则是年龄较高一代不论亲戚,而同代内的资历是由年龄决定的。丈夫和妻子的关系,丈夫总是被数为某些目的,而这个例外是例外。在行政和军事结构的资历是由一个复杂的系统和官方职位。在班级制度下,毕业生和政府官员算是个大人口的大公司,他们没有举行学位或办公室。普通人被认为是相对于奴隶或其他人从事职业的人。
当法院出现一个刑事案件,法官确定的第一件事就是精确的家庭关系(如果有的话),罪犯和受害者之间存在。在状态有关家庭关系大多数情况下的问题。但其他关系,可能是相关的,如那些自由人和奴隶之间或两个官员或官员和平民之间。审理该案件的裁判必须确定哪些刑法规则是适用于在被害人和犯罪站在确切关系。这些规则在大量的进行了详细阐述,以弥补状态许多可能的变化。采用的一般原则是,谁犯下危害初中的罪行的资深明显高于谁犯下危害的资深同一罪行的大三学生处罚较轻。地位的差距越大,或多或少严厉处罚。我们可能会问,这个角度看,这是由所有的中国代码直至清朝倒台保持了帐户,并出现如此违背jstice的西方观念?
其基本思想,先于孔子,但儒家正统采用,可以很简单地表示如下。在宇宙中,包括男性和女性所有的现象,有其指定的角色或课程。太阳,月亮,星星,四季都在其中表现得适当的方法,就像有男女适当的方式行事。中国人的思维剂量不加区分的是西方哲学已经在很大程度上接受为根本,该描述与规定或之间的“是”和“应该”,其中自然现象经常的行为方式的描述是在同一时间的方式声明中,他们应该表现。换句话说,每一个对象具有它自己的性质,这决定了它在其中是行为的方式。这适用于人和动物以及无生命现象。只是因为它是太阳的性质在天空中从东到西移动,所以它是人类的性质以一定的方式来表现。
我们现在必须考虑到宇宙中的“物体”的元素之间的关系。作为一个整体,整个宇宙只有在它的自然作用下,才能够正常或和谐地发挥作用。例如,如果地球上的季节发生在它们的正常序列中,并执行它们的规则序列,并在作物生产中发挥其正常的作用,就只能有繁荣了。关于宇宙的元素的反映和他们彼此的关系,揭示了一些被视为“优越”和一些“不如”。最明显的,也许,天空被认为是“优越”的地球,它站立,和太阳,这占据了天空中的一天,被视为“优越”的月亮,它占据了晚上。因此,宇宙的和谐的工作需要维护区分“优”与“劣”中各组成部分的关系表现在适当的方式感。在白天的天空中,月亮不能与太阳竞争。
当我们考虑人的关系在实践中更重要时,这一点变得更加明显,。人类本身就是一个人,它本身就需要某种形式的行为,而市场从人类的动物中脱离。人类社会在其正当的意义上构成了其个体成员,每个人都按照自己的本性行事。在家庭和社会结构中,任何特定的人都是由他或她所处的位置决定的。一个社会只有在其成员的行为符合他们在它里面的角色时才有适当的功能。这些角色中最重要的是由统治者与主体、父亲和儿子、丈夫和妻子、和哥哥和弟弟的关系所构成的。我们可能还记得这里经常被引用的神秘replyof cinfucius关于政府干预原则查询,运行“统治者,部长,父亲的父亲,儿子的儿子。”这句话的意思是,统治者应该对待他的部长和学科为适当的统治者,部长和主体行为向他们统治者是适当的部长和科目,父亲应该是一个适当的父亲对他的儿子和儿子的儿子对他父亲。“恰当”的概念是一套复杂的义务。
主要的家庭和社会角色包括互动行为。统治者的行为侵害的主体,反之亦然,同样的应用相对于父亲与儿子的行为,丈夫和妻子,和姐姐和弟弟。因此,出现这样的问题:如何在这样的相互作用的行为是“和谐”,从而使基本的社会和家庭角色的无摩擦地工作。答案是按等级原则提供的。在每一个主要的关系中,一个是被排成一个“高级”,一个是“劣势”。和谐是靠仁慈、保护和仁爱的优越而得到的,而由上级和下级的尊重和服从。家庭和社会阶层的正确维护需要社会的和谐,通过和谐的工作来实现它的基本关系。
“层次”和“和谐”的重要理念,可以扩展到超越基本的社会和家庭关系,以更普遍的人与“更高”和“低”的能力的互动。那些拥有较低的。这是基本的区别经常得出C那些作品之间的“优势”和“小”的人,在区分的基本原理是从教育和心智的培养出。我们这里有这样一个思想:在中国传统社会中,在官方或研究生与从未有过学位或从未成为官方的人之间的区别。它解释了在传统社会的阶层分化不仅官方与非官方之间的,也是自由的奴隶或是人之间。
皇帝,拥抱正统的儒家思想,强调了国家的好政府层级与和谐的双重概念的重要性。指在这方面给予指导的是明泰-TSU,从农民出身,然后推翻元朝,建立了明朝。他在复活古代的理想,归咎于人民币的秋天未能兑现。他们特别感兴趣。有一次,他看到李(礼仪,礼节,维护社会角色)和FA(刑法)一起组建了国家规范由“男人的野心结算和权力的优越和澄清的层次。”他还解释他的政府的观点如下:“天子与处罚规定,并带来男子通过等级界限提交。这些规定,从而使他的政府可见,给人一种安全的境界,其中以仁和长寿为准。”
在十八和十九世纪,该“等级界限”嵌入儒家思想到明朝时,泰学不仅简化了刑法规则的内容,而且对这些规则的解释和刑部应用方式有决定性的影响。我们将在两部分材料中考虑。本章的其余部分将研究根本家庭关系法的影响,第6章将着眼于政治关系和阶级差别。
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