基于说谎心理学的视觉图像研究外文翻译资料
2021-12-11 22:15:58
CHAPTER VI The Rise of Science
ALMOST everything that distinguishes the modern world from earlier centuries is attributable to science, which achieved its most spectacular triumphs in the seventeenth century. The Italian Renaissance, though not medieval, is not modern; it is more akin to the best age of Greece. The sixteenth century, with its absorption in theology, is more medieval than the world of Machiavelli.
The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the seventeenth century. No Italian of the Renaissance would have been unintelligible to Plato or Aristotle; Luther would have horrified Thomas Aquinas, but would not have been difficult for him to understand. With the seventeenth century it is different: Plato and Aristotle, Aquinas and Occam, could not have made head or tail of Newton.
The new conceptions that science introduced profoundly influenced modern philosophy.Descartes, who was in a sense the founder of modern philosophy, was himself one of the creators of seventeenthcentury science. Something must be said about the methods and results of astronomy and physics before the mental atmosphere of the time in which modern philosophy began can be understood.
Four great men-- Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton--are pre-eminent in the creation of science. Of these, Copernicus belongs to the sixteenth century, but in his own time he had little influence.
Copernicus ( 1473-1543) was a Polish ecclesiastic, of unimpeachable orthodoxy. In his youth he travelled in Italy, and absorbed something of the atmosphere of the Renaissance. In 1500 he had a lectureship or professorship of mathematics in Rome, but in 1503 he returned to his native land, where he was a canon of Frauenburg. Much of his time seems to have been spent in combating the Germans and reforming the currency, but his leisure was devoted to astronomy.
He came early to believe that the sun is at the centre of the universe, and that the earth has a twofold motion: a diurnal rotation, and an annual revolution about the sun. Fear of ecclesiastical censure led him to delay publication of his views, though he allowed them to become known.
His chief work, De Revolutionibus Orbium CAring;“lestium, was published in the year of his death (1543), with a preface by his friend Osiander saying that the heliocentric theory was only put forward as a hypothesis. It is uncertain how far Copernicus sanctioned this statement, but the question is not very important, as he himself made similar statements in the body of the book. *
The book is dedicated to the Pope, and escaped official Catholic condemnation until the time of Galileo. The Church in the lifetime of Copernicus was more liberal than it became after the Council of Trent, the Jesuits, and the revived Inquisition had done their work.
The atmospheze of Copernicus#39;s work is not modern; it might rather be described as Pythagorean. He takes it as axiomatic that all celestial motions must be circular and uniform, and like the Greeks he allows himself to be influenced by Atilde;brvbar;sthetic motives. There are still epicycles in his system, though their centres are at the sun, or, rather, near the sun. The fact that the sun is not exactly in the centre marred the simplicity of his theory. He does not seem to have known of Aristarchus#39;s heliocentric theory, but there is nothing in his speculations that could not have occurred to a Greek astronomer. What was important in his work was the dethronement of the earth from its geometrical pre-eminence. In the long run, this made it difficult to give to man the cosmic importance assigned to him in the Christian theology, but such consequences of his theory would not have been accepted by Copernicus, whose orthodoxy was sincere, and who protested against the view that his theory contradicted the Bible.
There were genuine difficulties in the Copernican theory. The greatest of these was the absence of stellar parallax. If the earth at any one point of its orbit is 186,000,000 miles from the point at which it will be in six months, this ought to cause a shift in the apparent positions of the stars, just as a ship at sea which is due north from one point of the coast will not be due north from another.
No parallax was observed, and Copernicus rightly inferred that the fixed stars must be very much more remote than the sun. It was not till the nineteenth century that the technique of measurement became sufficiently precise for stellar parallax to be observed, and then only in the case of a few of the nearest stars.
Another difficulty arose as regards falling bodies. If the earth is continually rotating from west to east, a body dropped from a height ought not to fall to a point vertically below its starting-point, but to a point somewhat further west, since the earth will have slipped away a certain distance during the time of the fall. To this difficulty the answer was found by Galileo#39;s law of inertia, but in the time of Copernicus no answer was forthcoming.
There is an interesting book by E. A. Burtt, called The Metaphisical Foundations of Modern Physical Science ( 1925), which sets forth with much force the many unwarrantable assumptions made by the men who founded modern science. He points out quite truly that there were in the time of Copernicus no known facts which compelled the adoption of his system, and several which militated against it. 'Contemporary empiricists, had they lived in the sixteenth century, would have been the first to scoff out of court the new philosophy of the universe.' The general purpose of the book is to discredit modern science by suggesting that its discoveries were lucky accidents springing by chance from superstitions as gross as those of the Middle Ages. I think this
shows a misconception of the scientific attitude: it is not what the man of science believes that distinguishes him, but how and why he believes it. His
近代世界与先前各世纪的区别,几乎每一点都能归源于科学,科学在十七世纪收到
了极奇伟壮丽的成功。意大利文艺复兴时期虽然不是中古光景,可是也没有近代气象;
倒比较类似希腊的全盛年代。十六世纪耽溺在神学里面,中古风比马基雅弗利的世界还
重。按思想见解讲,近代从十七世纪开始。文艺复兴时期的意大利人,没一个会让柏拉
图或亚里士多德感觉不可解;路德会吓坏托马斯·阿奎那,但是阿奎那要理解路德总不
是难事。论十七世纪,那就不同了:柏拉图和亚里士多德、阿奎那和奥卡姆,对牛顿会
根本摸不着头脑。
科学带来的新概念对近代哲学发生了深刻的影响。笛卡尔在某个意义上可说是近代
哲学的始祖,他本人就是十七世纪科学的一个创造者。为了能够理解近代哲学发源时期
的精神气氛,必须先就天文学和物理学的方法与成果谈一谈。
在创立科学方面,有四个不同凡响的伟人,即哥白尼、开普勒、伽利略和牛顿。其
中哥白尼是属于十六世纪的人,不过他在生前并没有什么威望。
哥白尼(1473—1543)是一位波兰教士,抱着真纯无瑕的正统信仰。他在年轻的时
候旅居意大利,接受了一些文艺复兴气氛的熏陶。1500年,他在罗马获得数学讲师或教
授的职位,但是1503年就回故国,作弗劳恩堡大教堂的僧侣会员。
他的时光有一大部分好像花在抗击德意志人和改革币制上面,但是他利用余暇致力
于天文学。他很早就已经相信太阳处在宇宙中央,而地球则作双重运动,即每日间的自
转和一年一度的绕日回转。尽管他也让大家知道他个人的意见,但由于害怕教会的谴责,
他迟迟没有公开发表。他的主要著作《天体回转论》(DeRevolutionibusOrbiumCBlest
ium)是在他逝世那年(1543)出版的,附有他的朋友奥羡德写的一篇序,序里讲太阳中
心说无非是当作一个假说提出来的。哥白尼对这点声明究竟有几分认可固然不确实知道,
但他自己在书的正文中也作了一些类似的声明,所以这问题不大关紧要。这本书题献给
教皇,在伽利略时代以前逃过了天主教会的正式断罪。哥白尼生存时代的教会,和土伦
特宗教会议、耶稣会人以及复活的异端审判所发挥出作用后的教会相比,算是比较宽大
的。
哥白尼的著作的气氛并不是近代气氛,也许倒不如说它是一种毕达哥拉斯哲学的气
氛。一切天体运动必是等速圆周运动,这在他认为是公理;而且他也像希腊人一样,听
任自己为审美上的动机所左右。在他的体系中仍旧有“周转圆”,只不过其中心是太阳,
或说得确切一点,邻近太阳。太阳不恰在中央,这件事破坏了他的学说的单纯性。哥白
尼虽然对毕达哥拉斯的理论有耳闻,他似乎并不知道亚里士达克的太阳中心说,但是他
的理论当中没有丝毫东西是希腊的天文学家所不可能想到的。他的成就的重要处在于将
地球撵下了几何学位置独尊的宝座。从长远说,这一来基督教神学中赋予人类在宇宙间
的重要地位便难以归到人身上了。但是他的学说所产生的这种后果,哥白尼是不会承认
的;他的正统信仰很真诚,他反对认为他的学说与圣经抵触的看法。
哥白尼理论中有一些真正的困难。最大的困难是见不到恒星视差。假定位于轨道上
任意一点的地球,和半年后的地球所在点距离一亿八千六百万英里,这应当使恒星的外
观位置产生变动,正比如海面上的船只,从海岸某一点看来在正北的,从另一点看必不
会在正北。当时未观测到视差现象,哥白尼下了一个正确推断:恒星一定比太阳遥远得
多。直到十九世纪,测量技术才精密到能够观测恒星视差,而且那时候也只有少数最近
的星可以观测。
关于落体,又生出另一个困难。假若地球自西往东转动不停,从高处掉落下来的物
体不应当落在起始点的正下方一点,而该落在稍偏西一点才对,因为在下落时间内,地
球要转过一段距离。这个问题由伽利略的惯性定律找到解答,但是在哥白尼的时代,任
何答案还拿不出来。
有一本E.A.柏特(Burtt)写的饶有趣味的书,叫《近代物理学的形而上学基础》
(TheMetaphysicalAEoundations oaeMod-ernPhysicalScience)(1925),这本书
论述了创立近代科学的那些人所作的许多难保证的假定,讲得非常有力量。
他指出一点十分正确,就是在哥白尼时代,并没有既知的事实足以令人非采纳他的
体系不可,倒有若干个对此不利的事实。“当代的经验主义者假使生在十六世纪,会头
一个嘲笑这新宇宙哲学不值一谈。”这书总的目的是在表示:近代科学里的发现都是从
一些和中世纪的迷信同样无稽的迷信中偶然产生的幸运事件,借此贬低近代科学的声价。
我以为这表明对科学态度有误解。显出科学家本色的,并不在他所信的事,而在乎他抱
什么态度信它、为什么理由信它。科学家的信念不是武断信念,是尝试性的信念;它不
依据权威、不依据直观,而建立在证据的基础上。哥白尼把自己的理论叫作假说是对的;
他的敌派认为新的假说要不得,这是一个错误。
创立近代科学的那些人有两种不一定并存的长处:作观察时万分耐心,设假说时有
大无畏精神。其中第二种长处最早期的希腊哲学家先前曾有过,第一种长处在古代晚期
的天文家身上也有相当程度的表现。但是在古代人中间,也许除亚里士达克外,没有人
同时具备这两种长处,而中世纪的时候,更无人具备任何一种。哥白尼像他的一些伟大
的后继者,两种兼有。关于各天体在天球上的外观运动,用当时已有的仪器所能知道的
一切他全部知道;他并且认识到,地球每日自转一周这种讲法和所有天体旋转这讲法比
起来,是个较简便的假说。现代观点把一切运动看成是相对的,按这观点来讲,他的假
说产生的唯一好处就是单纯;但这不是哥白尼的看法,也不是他的同时代人的看法。关
于地球每年一度的公转,这里也有一种单纯化,不过不像自转的单纯化那么显著。
哥白尼仍旧需要周转圆,无非比托勒密体系所需要的少些罢了。新理论要等到开普
勒发现行星运动定律以后,才获得充分的单纯性。
新天文学除了对人们关于宇宙的想像产生革命性影响以外,有两点伟大价值:第一,
承认自古以来便相信的东西也可能是错的;第二,承认考查科学真理就是耐心搜集事实,
再结合大胆猜度支配这些事实的法则。这两点价值无论哪一点,就哥白尼讲都还不及他
的后继者们发挥得充分,但是在他的事业中,这两点都已经有了高度表现。
哥白尼向一些人传达了自己的学说,这里面有的是德意志的路德派信徒;但是当路
德获悉这件事,他极为震愤。他说:“大家都要听这么一个突然发迹的星相术士讲话,
他处心积虑要证明天空或苍穹、太阳和月亮不转,而是地球转。哪个希望显得伶俐,总
要杜撰出什么新体系,它在一切体系当中自然是顶好不过的罗。这蠢才想要把天文这门
科学全部弄颠倒;但是圣经里告诉我们,约书亚命令太阳静止下来,没有命令大地。”
同样,加尔文也拿经句“世界就坚定,不得动摇”(《诗篇》第九十三篇第1节),
把哥白尼一口骂倒,他叫喊:“有谁胆敢将哥白尼的威信高驾在圣灵的威信之上?”新
教牧师至少像旧教教士一样冥顽不灵;尽管如此,在新教国家不久就比旧教国家有了大
得多的思想自由,这是因为新教国家中牧师的权力较小的缘故。新教的重要一面不在于
树立异端,而在于分裂教派;因为教派分裂造成国家教会,而国家教会的力量够不上控
制俗界政权。这点全然是一种好处,因为无论何处,几乎对一切有助于增进人世间幸福
和知识的革新,教会只要能反对总要反对。
哥白尼提不出什么支持他的假说的确凿证据,因此长时期内天文学家否定这假说。
其次的一个重要天文家是泰寇·布剌(TychoBrahe,1546—1601),他采取折衷立场:
认为太阳和月亮环绕地球,但是各行星环绕太阳。至于理论方面,泰寇·布剌不大有创
见。不过,他给亚里士多德所谓的月球以上万物不变这个意见举出了两点正当的反对理
由。一个理由是1572年出现一颗新星,发觉这颗星没有周日视差,因此它一定比月球远。
另一个理由是从观测彗星得到的,发觉彗星也很遥远。读者会记起亚里士多德讲的嬗变
朽败限于月球下界的学说;这学说正像亚里士多德对科学问题发表的一切别的意见,到
底还是对进步的障碍。
泰寇·布剌的重要地位不是按理论家说的,而是按观测家说的;他先在丹麦国王奖
助下、后来在卢多勒夫二世皇帝奖助下从事天文观测。他制订了一个恒星表,又把许多
年间各行星的位置记下来。在他死前不久,当时还是个青年的开普勒做了他的助手。对
开普勒讲,泰寇·布剌的观测结果是无价之宝。
开普勒(1571—1630)是说明人假若没有多大天才,凭毅力能达到什么成就的一个
最显著的实例。他是继哥白尼之后采用太阳中心说的头一个重要天文学家,但是泰寇·
布剌的观测资料表明,太阳中心说按哥白尼所定的形式,不会十分正确。开普勒受毕达
哥拉斯哲学的影响,虽是个虔诚的新教徒,却有点异想天开地倾向太阳崇拜。这些动机
当然让他对太阳中心说有了偏爱。他的毕达哥拉斯哲学又引动他追随柏拉图的《蒂迈欧
篇》,设想宇宙的意义必定寄托在五种正多面体上。他利用这五种正多面体设想种种假
说;最后仗好运,有一个假说正管用。
开普勒的伟大成就是发现他的行星运动三定律。其中有两条定律是他在1609年发表
的,第三条定律发表于1619年。
他的第一定律说:行星沿椭圆轨道运动,太阳占居这椭圆的一个焦点。第二定律说:
一个行星和太阳之间的连结线,在相等时间内扫出相等面积。第三定律说:一个行星的
公转周期平方与这行星和太阳之间的平均距离立方成正比。
下面必须略说几句,解释一下这几条定律的重要意义。
在开普勒时代,前两条定律只能够按火星的情况来·证·明;
关于其它几个行星,观测结果和这两条定律也不抵触,但那种观测结果还不算明白
确立这两条定律。然而不久以后就找到决定性的证据。
发现第一定律,就是说行星沿椭圆轨道运动,需要有的摆脱传统的努力是现代人不
容易充分体会到的。所有天文学家无例外取得意见一致的唯有一件事,就是一切天体运
动是圆周运动,或是圆周运动组合成的运动。遇到用圆不够说明行星运动的情况,就利
用周转圆。所谓周转圆就是在圆上面滚动的另一个圆的圆周上一点所画出的曲线。举个
例子:拿一个大的车轮平放固定在地面上;再取一个小车轮,轮上穿透着一颗钉,让
车轮(也平放在地上)沿大车轮滚动,钉尖接触着地面。这时钉子在地上的痕迹就画成
周转圆。月球对太阳而言,它的轨道大致属这类轨道:粗略地说,地球围绕太阳画圆,
同时月球围绕地球画圆。然而这不过是近似的讲法。随着观测精密起来,才知道没有一
种周转圆组配系统会完全符合事实。开普勒发现,他的假说比托勒密的假说跟火星的记
录位置密合得多,甚至比哥白尼的假说也密合得多。
用椭圆代替圆,从毕达哥拉斯以来一直支配着天文学的审美偏见就势必得抛弃。圆
是完美的形状,天体是完美的物体——本来都是神,即便依柏拉图或亚里士多德讲,和
神也有亲近关系。完美的物体必须作完美形状的运动,这似乎是明显的事。况且,既然
天体未被推也未被拉,自由地运动,它们的运动一定是“自然的”。可是容易设想圆有
某种“自然的”地方,在椭圆就不好想像。这样,许多根深蒂固的成见先须丢掉,才能
够接受开普勒第一定律。古代的人连萨摩岛的亚里士达克在内,谁也不曾预见到这种假
说。
第二定律讲行星在轨道的不同点上的速度变化。设S表示太阳,P1,P2,P3,P4,P
5表示在相等的时间间隔——譬如说每隔一个月——行星的相继位置,开普勒的这条定律
说P1SP2,P2SP3,P3SP4,P4SP5这几块面积全相等。所以行星离太阳最近时运动得最快,
资料编号:[5707]