2. Literature Review 2.1 Fossilization 2.1.1 The definition of fossilization Fossilization is an important factor of inter-language, the definition was mainly developed by Selinker and his fellows. The term "fossilization" was addressed in the field of second language acquisition by Selinker in 1972. In 1978, Selinker and Lamendella defined fossilization in terms of " a permanent cessation of inter-language learning before the learner has attained target language norms at all levels of linguistic structure and in all discourse domains in spite of the learner's positive ability, opportunity, and motivation to learn and acculturate into target society” . Then, In 1996, Selinker developed the definition into ” the process whereby the learner creates a cessation of inter-language learning, thus stopping the inter-language from developing, it is hypothesized, in a permanent way #8230; the argument is that no adult can hope to ever speak a second language in such a way that she/he is indistinguishable from native speakers of that language”. Beyond Selinker's definitions, Robert also gives his definition of fossilization: The definition of fossilization refers to two close notions.The first one is preserving of ancient linguistics features which have lost their grammatical functions in language. The second one is loss of productivity of a grammatical paradigm, which still remains in use in some words. Although the definition of fossilization is various among linguists, but it is indeed a problem to be solved in second language acquisition. 2.1.2 The features of fossilization 1. Permanency.”Permanency” refers to permanent existence of language errors. Fossilization is defined by Brown as the relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect linguistic forms into a learner#8217;s second language competence. In addition, Selinker(1972) considers that fossilization is the situation which non-target like forms is persisting and it will exist in learners#8217; speech in spite of learners#8217; efforts to get rid of it. 2. Persistency. The third feature of fossilization is persistency, which refers to the persistent failure to achieve complete mastery of the target language. That is to say, it is hard to achieve the native speaker level although the learner has made great efforts to learn target language because the fossilization will last for a long period if it can not be eradicated, therefore the learner will not succeed in mastering the target language. 3. Fluency. Fluency is also the characteristics of fossilization. Brown (1993) states that fossilization always happens when learners have achieved the second language system to the point of fluency, which allows the minor errors to occur repeated unconsciously. 2.1.3 Types of Fossilization Phenomena Selinker classified fossilization in terms of its form and property. As for form, fossilization falls into two major categories, namely individual fossilization and group fossilization. As for property, it can be divided into temporary fossilization and permanent fossilization. Besides, fossilization can also be classified into different types according to various categories such as lasting time, extent and degree. 1. Individual fossilization and Group fossilization. In form, fossilization are divided into two major categories: individual fossilization and group fossilization. It means fossilization can be unique to an individual or can be shared by a group. Individual fossilization refers to different fossilized items or different degrees of fossilized language competence that occur to different individuals. Individual fossilization mainly comprises two types: error reappearance and language competence fossilization. The first type refers to the formation of stabilized errors on account of repeated appearance of errors in spite of corrective feedback. In other words, error reappearance refers to the reappearance of errors that have been corrected many times but still exist. Schahter compared adults second language acquisition and children#8217;s first language acquisition, they defined fossilization as ”the inappropriate inter-language structures, which are thought to have been corrected, but continue to appear regularly in inter-language system”. Learners with low proficiency can be easily found in error fossilization. Language competence fossilization refers to the plateau in the improvement of the second language learners#8217; grammar and vocabulary competence. Group fossilization is that the whole community or the whole group widely accepted the fossilization. Fossilizated inter-language has been put into use universally for a long term, which leads to a new dialact. For example, pidgnization, Indian English and Singlish which can illustrate the process of group fossilization to some extent. 2. Permanent fossilization and temporary fossilization. According to Selinker, some fossilized language forms get suck in the inter-language forever. Researchers called it permanent fossilization. Permanent fossilization refers to that the learner#8217;s errors in his inter-language which have remained for a long period (usually more than 5 years according to Selinker#8217;s time standard) or even life long. That is to say, once a learners inter-language stops to make further progress toward the target language, the inter-language will not improve. Tollefson and Firn (1983) proposed that temporary fossilization is also called stabilization. Dai WeiDong(1999) pointed out that, learners#8217; level will make qualitative leap if they accept optimal input such as the experience of studying abroad, and then entered into the stagnation period. The distinction between permanent fossilization and temporary fossilization attach great practical significance on overcoming temporary fossilization while permanent fossilization is difficult to eradicate. 3. Partial fossilization and overall fossilization. These two types of fossilization are classified according to the degree. Partial fossilization is that the phenomenon occurs in certain language items, the learners are capable of making progress in other areas but the same errors reappear in the inter-language. The second language learner barely reach the target language, but they may be able to speak fluently after a long-term training. Overall fossilization refers to the learners#8217; overall competence get fossilized, for example , the learners get suck at a plateau and can not go further any more. Schumann#8217;s empirical study in 1978 can prove it. Compared with the overall fossilization , partial fossilization can be overcame easily. 2.1.4 Causes of Fossilization Phenomena Over the past decades, many researchers have done a a great quantity of studies of fossilization from different perspectives to discover the causes of fossilization , and a great number of different theories have been proposed. Selinker indicated that five processes as the causes of fossilization. Selinker#8217;s(1991) early explanation of the causes of fossilization consists of five central processes: 1. Language transfer. Selinker considered language transfer as the most decisive factor in leading to fossilization. Learners#8217; first language exerts influence on learners#8217; inter-language system, and they can not develop the second language output. 2. Transfer of training. Transfer of training usually happens on the early stage in the process of learning. Excessive training on certain inter-language structures has been imposed on the second language learners so that they can not continue to produce new structures successfully. 3. Inappropriate communication strategies. It refers to the learners#8217; usage of many skills in the communication, such as avoidance, paraphrase, simplification, reduction of lexicon and so on. When the learner has mastered the certain knowledge of the second language, they must use some communication strategies consciously or unconsciously so as to improve the fluency of communication or tackle with some communication difficulties. 4. Inappropriate learning strategies. Learners may use inappropriate strategies in their learning process and cause the fossilization in inter-language. For instance, if the learners use the correct and efficient learning strategies, it can ensure that the inter-language will approach the target language steadily, but the incorrect learning strategies can cause the fossilization. 5. Over-generalization. It refers to target language and semantic feature are over-generalized. The over-generalization of target language means that the learners put the mastered grammar rules or the usages of certain words into other contexts, but these rules and usages may be wrong or not existing in other contexts like ”sayed” ”thinked”. In other words, the learners use their mastered or native language knowledge to organize the target language. Besides these five reasons, other researchers gave more explanation to fossilization. 1. The biological reasons. Lennerberg is the prominent representative of the biological model. He advanced the theory Critical Period Hypothesis(CPH) in his monumental, The Function of Language, suggesting that there was a neurologically bases critical period. CPH theory emphasizes age plays an important role in the second language learning process . Ellis proposes that children do better than adults second language learners in pronunciation and oral tests, but adults second language learners do better than children in the acquisition of learning the knowledge about grammar. 2. The acculturation reason Some researchers focus their attention on acculturation. Acculturation is defined by Brown as ”the process of becoming adapted to a new culture ”(1980). Schumann(1976) suggests that second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation. The degree a learner acculturates to the target language group will exert influence on the degree that he requires the target language. According to this model, fossilization occurs when a learner's acculturation to the target culture stops. In other words, fossilization is brought about a large social or psychological distance between the learner and the culture of the second language. As we all know, second language acquisition has connection with linguistic input, it is also relative to attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, and values. Acculturation is simply the change that occurs to cultures as they adjust to each other. 2.2 Studies of Non-English Majors#8217; Fossilization in English Writing Fossilization has been the main focus of the second language acquisition since Selinker put forward this term in 1972. There are many researchers in our country who have done a lot of studies on fossilization. In recent years, Chen Yaping (1997) did a survey on fossilization phenomenon among Chinese English majors and defined fossilization as ”learning plateau” from psychological perspective. That is to say, the learners#8217; language skills will not develop because it remains on a plateau. What#8217;s more, according to Selinker#8217;s five principle processes of causes of fossilization, Niu Qiang (2002) addresses that training transfer are different with Selinker#8217;s ideas. He considers that there are two meanings in training transfer from the perspective of empirical study. The first meaning is that the learners#8217; misunderstandings of the language points and grammatical rules of target language are brought about by the application or use of inappropriate English language. These misunderstandings always happen at the initial stage of learning English, and these errors are hard to be removed. The second meaning is the misuse of language materials. Dai Weidong(1999) believes that receiving the optimal input is the best way to deal with the problem of Chinese students#8217;inter-language fossilization. All in all, there are fewer studies of fossilization in English writing of non-English majors, most of them pay more attention on solutions rather than causes in study of non-English majors students#8217;fossilization in English writing. In general, both the previous researchers in our country and abroad, they made great contributions to the studies of fossilization. But we can clearly conclude that some researchers only focus on studying the phenomenon of fossilization theoretically and hypothetically. As we all know, the process of learning the second language is complicated, it is influenced by multiple factors, but some researchers analyze the causes of fossilization just from one aspect. So the study of fossilization phenomena are still making us confused. The studies of fossilization ,especially in China need to be studied further because many researchers based their studies on the theories of foreign linguists, many of them ignored considering the special situation of Chinese English learners. So in the next part, the author aims at studying fossilization under the Chinese situations and try to give some empirical suggestions to prevent fossilization. 6. References 1. Brown, H. D. （1980）. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. 2. Ellis, R. （1999）. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 3. Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York: John Wiley. 4. Lamendella, J. T. （1977）. General principles of neurofunctional organization and their manifestations in primary and non-primary language acquisition. Language Learning, 27,155-196. 5. Nemser, W. (1971). Approximative systems of foreign language learners. 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