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摘 要

在全球环境危机日趋严重的情势下,生态批评已成为一门显学。海明威作品中的自然世界也进入了生态批评家的视野。海明威在其众多作品中,展现了人与自然息息相关,相依为命和共生共存的关系,揭示出人类只有在与自然的和谐相处中方能实现可持续性发展。海明威是一个具有生态意识的作家这一点已为诸多批评家所认同。在《老人与海》中,作者对大自然进行了由衷的赞美并探讨了人与自然的关系,同时反思了传统的人类中心说。藉此,希望唤醒现代人心中的生态意识,约束并最终消除人类对自然生态的破坏。

关键词：欧内斯特·海明威 《老人与海》 生态批评

1. Introduction

• 1. An introduction of Ecological Criticism

The term, “Ecological Criticism”, originated from William Rueckert’s Literature and Ecology (1998), referring to “the ecology and ecological philosophy for literature research” (Rueckert, 1998: 71). The basic concept of Eco-criticism is that man and nature are closely linked and affect each other. Ecological literature criticism is a kind of literary criticism theory which discusses the relationship between literature and the natural environment. It seeks to establish the relationship between literature, nature and culture, and create an ecological poetics theory. Since the early 1990s, ecological literature criticism has gone through three stages, and has made some achievements in the creation of ecological literature criticism theory.

The ecological literature criticism that began in the United States in the 1990s was produced in the face of the growing global environmental crisis. It is intended to explore the relationship between literature and the natural environment. The concept of ecological literature criticism can be traced back to the 1970s. Philip Melling proposed the concept of "literary ecology" in The Comedy of Survival: Studies in Literary Ecology, 1992 ——"Studying the Biological Theme in Literary Works" (Melling, 2006: 9). So far, a short period of ten years, the US ecological literature criticism has gone through three stages. The first stage focuses on how nature and the environment are reflected in literary works. Ecological critics argue that the old patterns of naturalism in many works are: nature is either portrayed as an idyllic pastoral paradise and virgin land, or a miasma or swallowed wilderness. The second stage of ecological literature criticism focuses on the effort to move forward with the long-neglected literary works that describe nature, and makes an in-depth study and research on the history, development, achievement and style genre of American literary works. The third stage of ecological literature criticism attempts to create an ecological poetics that strengthens the theoretical construction of ecological literary criticism by emphasizing the concept of ecosystems.

Therefore, it makes as its subject nature and culture, especially the mutual

relation of language, literature and nature. Different from other literary criticism that the world is the society, Eco-criticism holds that the world is the whole nature. One of the most important tasks of Eco-criticism is to urge people to seriously think about the relationship between man and nature as well as awaken their consciousness of protecting the natural environment.

• 1. An introduction to Ernest Hemingway and The Old Man and the Sea

From the beginning of The Paris appearing in the literary world, Hemingway became the focal point in the world of the critics and was awarded the Nobel Prize for The Old man and the Sea in 1954. The novella enjoys popularity in China. Even in the period of "the Cultural Revolution", it is secretly circulated in the educated youth who went to the countryside and inspired a large number of the lost youth.

The Old Man and the Sea not only makes Hemingway himself achieve great success, but also blow a whirlwind in the field of literature and art around the world. Just as Hemingway himself says, "The Old man and the Sea is the best work in my life" (Dong, 1992: 33). Hemingway has a strong ecological consciousness of protecting nature. In this book, he mainly expounds that man is only one part of the nature and the relationship between human development and all things in nature is interdependent. Therefore, humans need to form a connection with nature and integrate into it. This work harbors the idea of interdependence between man and nature, and unity of the opposite, thus demonstrating a kind of ecological conflict between man and nature in the sense of Santiago’s unique tragedy.

This paper attempts to analyze the relationship between man and nature from the perspective of ecological criticism so as to make people abandon the human-centered value and form the correct ecological view.

2. Literature Review

In accordance with the former study of this masterpiece, readers can find critics often make deep analyses from the following perspectives.

1. The image of the “tough guy” in The Old Man and the Sea

Mr. Dong Hengxun (1992) uses the word “tough guy” to refer to Hemingway’s novels of those indomitable, in danger of struggling and without losing human dignity of the character of the manhood. While in China, with the attention of feminist criticism theory, different voices of criticism after the 1990s are existed, for example, He Xiaotao (2007), in his article, thinks that the starting point of “tough guy” is the patriarchal cultural values and lacks gender dialogue. The diversification of these “tough guys” criticism makes the domestic academic understanding fuller stereoscopic in this angle.

1. Symbolism in The Old Man and the Sea

Lester Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway’s younger brother, in the Memoirs of My Brother Ernest Hemingway, says that the Hemingway-style “tough guy” is Hemingway himself, and the tragic image of the old man symbolizes Hemingway’s own life. Ding Zhibin (2008) views that the sea symbolizes the cruel reality of society, the old man symbolizes the tenacious willpower of mankind, marlin symbolizes the good ideals of mankind, sharks symbolize the destructive power of society, and lions represent exuberant vitality and youth. Yang Qiuxi (2010) explains the tragic image of the old man is the epitome of Hemingway’s life, the sinister situation of the old man reveals Hemingway’s grace when he is under the pressure, and the sea is the symbol of Hemingway’s living environment. Zhao Yuheng (2012) believes that Santiago is a symbol of the human spirit, stripped fish symbolizes the grand goal and glory, and the sea is the arena of life. Judging from the above, the elderly, sharks and so on each have their own special symbolic significance, which are worthy of study.

2.3. The iceberg style in The Old Man and the Sea

In 1932, Hemingway put forward the famous “iceberg style” in his documentary works — Death in the Afternoon. He drew an analogy between the iceberg and the works, thinking that the author should only describe the “iceberg” which is on the surface of the water and the underwater part of the text should be prompted by the readers to imagine and supplement. However, a British critic, Bates, thinks that this “iceberg style” in the language expression of the novel almost deletes all the explanations, discussion, even a round, and cut off all the colorful metaphor. Tang Renfang (2008) describes the profound theme and the characters’ rich emotional world which are hidden under the works. She thinks that Hemingway uses concise words to shape the vivid character, and hides his own feelings and ideas maximized under the surface to achieve a kind of profound and implicit artistic effect, skillfully combining the perceptual and ideological content of literature and letting the readers feel and discover its intrinsic meaning. Chen Jing (2013) expounds the Expressionism (ellipsis, symbols) and language style (concise, line drawing, personalized) of iceberg style, thinking that the “iceberg style” has a great artistic charm. Through the above scholars’ researches, the readers can see that many aspects need to be researched and recognized in The Old and the Sea, whose hidden connotation deserves to be analyzed in depth.

2.4. The writing style of The Old Man and the Sea

Mei Shuhua (2009) describes that Hemingway chooses ordinary words and simple sentence structure, and that he often uses short sentences or tied sentences with the most common connection words linked to the writing style. She thinks that Ernest Hemingway has created a concise and fresh style, reaching a kind of realm which other writers cannot reach. Zeng Hui (2010) argues that The Old Man and the Sea embodies a brief, clear and objective writing style. The sentences of this work are short, and the syntactic structure is very simple. Free direct quotation makes the novel concise and crisp; the use of symbolic manipulation gives a profound implication to this work. The way of writing in The Old Man and the Sea makes the work more

concise, whose writing style is worth learning.

• 1. “Gender identity” in The Old Man and the Sea

Wan Xiaomei (2004) holds the view that the author constructs the “Female Absent Phenomenon” by centering on The Old Man and the Sea, pointing out that “tough guy” is the outward appearance created by Hemingway, and below the iceberg is to treat the life with ordinary heart, namely; the love between men and women is the essence of vital significance. Shi Lei (2006) thinks that the symbolic meanings existing in the old man, giant fish and the sea, on gender positions, has organized the three separate representatives of psychological and spiritual implication, structuring a unique theoretical framework — “there is no humble pride” (Shi, 2006: 42), thus reflecting the deep feminine worship complex in Western ideology tradition.

3. An Eco-Critical Analysis of The Old Man and the Sea

1. The criticism on the human conquest of nature

Human beings are a kind of biology, and biology is a part of nature. Thus, firstly people belong to nature. What humans, a kind of high intelligent animal, should do is to explore the nature and understand it to promote their own development rather than destroy it for personal gains. From the angle of ecological criticism, it means criticizing the human relentless conquest of nature. Only to open the heart to appreciate nature, understand nature, and have the sense of being in nature, can we live in harmony with it and adapt to its change, thus able to achieve the harmony between man and nature.

Firstly, we should establish a correct ecological aesthetic, that is, human beings are a part of nature. The so-called ecological beauty means that humans and nature interact and influence each other. The hero of The Old Man and the Sea, although he wants to conquer the sea, worships nature, loves the sea and blue sky, the various biological creatures between the sea and the sky. He loves the sea and views it as a woman, a tender and elegant woman. If she does some reckless or naughty things, it is beyond her control. He would not blame the sea or hate it. He appreciates the beauty of the sea and tolerates its cruelty. Although during 84 days, the old man did not catch a fish, the relationship between man and nature remains harmonious.

Secondly, we must remember well man and nature are interdependent and indivisible. When we grab what we want from nature at all costs, we always get more punitive consequences. The result is that we often not only destroy something to live on, but destruct our own confidence and hope. Although agreeing with the laws of nature and loves the nature, he the old man has to destroy nature in order to survive. Just at the beginning of the novel, the old man wants to capture more and bigger fish, which shows his ignorance of nature, violation of the laws of nature and over emphasis on their own strength. He desires to prove the human capability and endurance of nature, which forms a frontal collision and conflict with nature. After the old man caught the big marlin, he was caught in a fight with sharks. Eventually, he

just drags the skeleton of the fish back to the port. The killing of the Marlin made Santiago very painful. Nonetheless, the pain is of great significance for the whole human race, which reveals the human self-confrontation in the process of the struggle with the environment. In the final analysis, it has nothing to do with nature. Although it makes brutal and destructive reprisals to people, the retaliation can only charge a crime upon human beings! Human beings are defeated by themselves. The nature they survive and develop is destroyed by human beings themselves.

In the summer of 1955 and the spring of 1956, to assist the Hollywood to film The old man and the sea, Hemingway leads the crew to Cuba and the coast of Peru to catch a thousand pounds or even heavier Marlin as a shooting object. However, they failed to catch the biggest marlin. The biggest marlin they caught was only four hundred pounds. The big marlin is killed by all kinds of Santiago! Finally, they had to use a rubber and plastic to make a fake fish. Most of the scenes in this movie are filmed in Hollywood a man-made pond (Love 2003).This is a profound irony! Just as Wang Nuo (2013) declares, if humans are completely destroyed for offending nature one day, their spirit of victory and indestructibleness will be overshadowed.

This is the exact implication Hemingway intends to tell us: the human existence and all others in nature are interrelated. The readers cannot attempt to extort from nature immoderately. Otherwise, we are bound to face endless and ruthless revenge from nature.

1. The criticism on the value of the human center

Eco-criticism advocates that human beings should transform their consciousness from ego-consciousness to eco-consciousness. Man is no longer the master of nature, but shares a common destiny with other members of the nature as a member of the land community.

In The Old Man and the Sea, Hemingway repeatedly described the vastness, colorful sea. We know that the sea is the original source of all life; man and sea are coexistent. The flying fish in the dark, the frigate birds flying, hovering and swooping in the air, beautiful sea turtles and jellyfish or the huge marlin and ferocious sharks all

make people feel spectacular and shocking. Even the big marlin killed by the old man is so impressive and perfect. All have been portrayed so vividly by the author. This is why the whole novel almost reaches a double effect that natural humans and humanized nature achieve perfect fusion and unity. In this book, the old self seeks a kind of stability, coexistent and close relationship among himself, the whole nature (the sea) and all other components (flying fish, small petrels, turtles, dolphins, stars, etc.). This kind of artistic conception makes the reader appreciate the story and meanwhile feel the infinite vigor and vitality of nature. After all, "the world we live in should be composed of many organisms; and these organisms are our friends" (Simon, 2002: 33).

Now that the old man goes out to the sea, his attitude towards it establishes the harmony between man and nature. Then why does Santiago catch nothing for more than 80 days two times in a row? Why is he defeated by the Sharks? Some say that this is due to the limitations of bourgeois determinism. It is not. In the finale, what Hemingway wants to express is an ecological thought standing in the forefront of our times. He believes that conquering nature cannot prove the greatness of man. Nor can man overwhelm nature no matter how many victories he has made and is proud of, or no matter how he conquers nature to prove his strength. Finally, he will still suffer from the nature’s harsh and devastating punishment.

As an old fisherman, Santiago killed many innocent lives in his life. Such behavior can be found everywhere in the book. During fighting with the big marlin, he killed a dolphin and ate it. In this segment, the author uses vivid details, which make the reader not only know his proficient fishing techniques, but also sense his cruelty and heartlessness to these "brothers". The sea gave him dozens’ days of failure; it seems to have been a serious warning to him. The fisherman does not know the call of nature. He was deeply driven by self-consciousness and his desire. He takes himself as the center, desperate to the far sea to complete his innate task. He loves fish like a friend while he kills it. The only reason is that the fishermen believe that the fish are for human beings and they are born to be eaten. Thus, in this enduring masterpiece The Old Man and the Sea, Hemingway expresses his criticism of the

anthropocentrism through the failure of the old fisherman. There are only bones of the Marlin in old man’s boat. In other words, the old man gains nothing.

The deep ecological consciousness and the reflection on human centralism in The Old Man and the Sea provide the beneficial reference on how to straighten out the relations between humans and nature for Today's ecological civilization: Human and other natural objects are equal competitive partners. As advanced species, the centrality of human beings in nature is relative, and there is no sovereign status. In the ecosystem, the survival of all things is unified and diversified. Not only humans can act on nature, but nature can also exert the opposite effect on the humans. As ecologists emphasized, the ecosystem on Earth and human lives is closely related (Mukusick, 2000). Although the human indomitable spirit is certainly valuable, human dignity cannot get lost. While emphasizing and affirming the human ability, the readers should pay attention to the close links between man and nature, and abide by the law of nature.

1. The appeal for coexistence and development

The theory of ecological criticism explores the relationship between man and nature, and constantly makes improvement measures. We should balance the relationship well between man and nature so as to ensure and develop the harmony between them in the long term. The ultimate ideal of ecological literary criticism is to return to the bosom of the nature. Human beings rely on nature and maintain a harmonious relationship with it. With the ecological problems becoming more and more serious in the current world, people gradually realize that only reestablishing a harmonious and unified relationship can they continue to survive the natural world.

Santiago is the incarnation of the original inhabitants not only full of love for but also full of reverence for nature. In this book, the author repeatedly displays the fisherman’s awe to nature in the process of his killing the Marlins. When they meet for the first time, the fisherman says to the big fish that he awes the fish very much. With the continuation of the contest, the awe to the big fish is stronger; the degree of his praise is even more and more profound. He regards the big fish as their brothers,

friends, continuing to praise the fish as great, beautiful, calm, and noble feature so as to fight with him more fearlessly. He says, "come on, kill me, I don't care who killed who." (Hemingway, 1992: 20) The old fisherman has the most primitive view of nature. Biological species are equal, which maintains the survival and reproduction of humans through the material exchange with people. Because of the Marlin’s courage, the old man feels no man deserved eating big fish after his being killed. The old man feels very guilty of killing fish, but exonerates himself. In this way, the old man makes his heart no longer condemned by conscience; his psychology can be more balanced.

After Santiago’s three days of dealing with and killing the fish, what matters in Santiago’s mind is still the big fish’s economic value. Readers can be clearly aware that the old man is the same as other fishermen, whose purpose of fishing is just to make money to maintain life. He relies on fishing to support his life. That is to say, in the subjective sense, he is not for the prestige or dignity of human beings to challenge the sea. He is lonely but with strong character; he is an old man but with a healthy body. To earn a living is the very reason why he left his little humble and warm shack. He wants to compensate for their livelihoods by catching fish to sell a good price. However, this thought precisely reflects the interdependence and indivisible relationship between man and nature. In other words, the author wants to express that a human, no matter how clever or how strong, cannot be separated from nature and exist isolatedly.

At the end of the novella, the old man dreams the lions’ playing on the beach, which fully expresses his desire of returning to nature and integration into the nature. Philip Merlin thinks that the little lion which the old man sees at dusk is his pet, which is the expression of a concept of harmonious nature (Melling, 2006). This is not only the old fisherman Santiago’s dream and desire, but also the ideal of ecological literature criticism. To establish the relationship between man and nature in harmony, we need to get rid of two values founded by the social relations: consider the issue from their own interests; conquest of the alien forces.

4. Conclusion

With the intensification and the worsening state of environmental crises, people begin to study the ecology to improve the long-term survival and development of mankind. This article has conducted research and analysis on Ernest Hemingway's the old man and the sea, in order to understand the article ecological ideology and views. In general, The Old Man and the Sea, typical of the ecological consciousness, can be understood from the perspective of ecological criticism.

The Old Man and the Sea is the main work of Hemingway later life, is one of the representative works of Hemingway’s iceberg principle creation, is his life thought and art exploration summary. This masterpiece is broad and profound, rich in content. Its ideology and spirit are worthy of people to continue to discover and comprehend. Over the past few decades, people have known that Santiago dares to meet the challenges, fearless and obeys the image of “tough guy”, which is just a part of the iceberg that the sea exposed. We know that Hemingway is a writer who is obsessed with nature. He was deeply affected by the return to the natural movement. He has participated in two world wars and witnessed, personally experienced the trauma and despair caused by the war in people’s body and mind. Therefore, Disillusionment, spiritual crisis, nothingness, tragic consciousness have been shrouded in Hemingway's heart. In the face of the destruction of mankind and the destruction of nature by the two world wars, Hemingway decided to return to nature in order to fight against the war, alienation, nothingness and despair. Therefore, this article explores the deep thinking of the work from another point of view. In The Old Man and the Sea, Hemingway makes the performance of an equal relationship between human life and non-human life and the ecological consciousness which man is living harmony with nature. Santiago lives a simple life, who respects all non-human life. He reflects the behavior of mankind beyond their own borders, which has a great inspiration to people whether it is for the Americans at the time, or for all the modern society. Human beings save resources, respect for all lives, live in harmony with nature, which is the only choice to protect themselves and make themselves permanent living on

earth.

The analysis can first help the readers understand that human beings should comply with the objective laws of nature to beautify it rather than follow their subjective will. Simultaneously, it is beneficial to have a deep understanding of the relationship between man and nature as depicted in Hemingway’s works and enhance the awareness of getting along harmoniously with nature. Third, it helps us establish an ethical relationship with nature. Last, it can strengthen our consciousness of protecting the ecological civilization, prompting us to protect nature and avoiding the occurrence of destructing nature to achieve economic interests.

Works Cited

Hemingway, Ernest. Death in the Afternoon. London: Scribner, 2003.

Hemingway, Ernest. The Old Man and the Sea. New York: Bantam Books Inc, 1992.

Love, Glen A. Practical Ecocriticism: Literature, Biology, and the Environment. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2003.

Melling, Philip. Cultural Imperialism, Afro-cub and Religion, and Santiago’s Failure in Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea. The Hemingway’s Review, 26.1 (2006).

Mukusick, James C. Green. Writing: Romanticism and Ecology. London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 2000.

Rueckert, William. Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Eco-criticism. New York: Bantam Books Inc, 1998.

Simon, John. Animal Rights and the Politics of Literary Representation. New York: Palgrave, 2002.

Chen, Jing. [陈静], “评海明威的冰山风格 — 以《老人与海》为例”. 专题研讨, 2013, (5): 100-102.

Chen, Maolin. [陈茂林], 海明威的自然观初探——《老人与海》的生态批评. 江汉论坛, 2003, (7): 64-66.

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