论文总字数：35966字

摘 要

中介语僵化现象普遍存在。“中介语”一词是由英国著名语言学家 Larry Selinker 于1969 年在哥伦比亚国际会议上首次提出，并于1972年在他的同名论文中首次引用这一概念。Selinker 指出中介语是是母语和目标语之间的中间状态，它反映了第二语言或外语学习者不同阶段的获得状态。中介语是介于二语学习者母语与目的语之间的一种非连续性的语言体系。它以母语为出发点，逐渐向目的语靠近，是由二语习得者自己创造的动态语言系统。然而大量的实验表明,一些不正确的语言特征如不正确的语言项目,语法规则和系统性知识不管学习者的年龄和训练量如何，不会因为增加培训或外语技能的提高而消失，都会永久成为一种目标语言的表达方式。这些表达方式会长期反复使用，继而形成石化现象。

石化现象在中国大学生中广泛存在，尤其是非英语专业的大学生中，这已成为一个亟待解决的问题。 本文回顾了中介语石化的相关理论，并分析了中国非英语专业学生作文中的语法错误，揭示大学非英语专业学生学习中的石化特征，尝试性的分析石化现象产生的原因并提出一些举措。

关键词：石化现象；非英语专业学生；错误分析；产因；举措

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements

ABSTRACT

中文摘要

Chapter One INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Purpose and significance of the study 1

1.1.1 Purpose of the study 1

1.1.2 Significance of the study 1

1.2 Thesis organization 2

Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW 3

2.1 Fossilization 3

2.1.1 The definition of fossilization 3

2.1.2 The features of fossilization 4

2.1.3 Types of Fossilization Phenomena 4

2.1.4 Causes of fossilization phenomena 6

2.2 Studies of non-English majors’ fossilization in English writing 8

2.3 Error analysis 9

Chapter Three RESEARCH DESIGN 11

3.1 Research questions 11

3.2 Data collection 11

3.3 Error identification 11

3.4 Research methods 12

Chapter Four RESULTS and DISCUSSION 13

4.1 Analysis of fossilized errors in compositions 13

4.2 Analysis of the causes of fossilization in writing 14

4.3 Measures of preventing fossilization 15

Chapter Five CONCLUSION

5.1 Research findings 17

5.2 Limitations of the Study 17

REFERENCES 18

Chapter One

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose and significance of the study

Inter-language fossilization is an inevitable phenomenon which can occur in any stage of foreign language learning. It can mirror the deficiency of the learners in language and its specific application. Fossilization is widespread in the process of second language acquisition and has been seriously addressed by plenty of researchers in the field of applied linguistics nowadays. This phenomenon has captured the attention of many linguists and teachers and has been a focus of second language acquisition and foreign language teaching research.

1.1.1 Purpose of the study

How to reduce the fossilization is a huge challenge in foreign language learning. Choosing non-English majors in college as subjects and trying to conduct an empirical study of fossilization in some Chinese college non-English majors’ inter-language.

This study aims to achieve three purposes: 

(1) To conclude the similarities of errors made by the college students and prove that language fossilization is a common phenomenon among college non-English majors;

(2) To find out the causes of fossilization;

(3) To put forward some de-fossilizing strategies which are in favor of overcoming language fossilization on the basis of this study.

1.1.2 Significance of the study

The significance of the study on fossilization:

As for theoretical part, it provides us with the foundation of the background information and guides us the right developing direction of the study in this field. As for practical part, it encourages the teachers to understand students’ mastery of target language better. It gives teachers guidance to take efficient measures to avoid reappearing fossilization errors or eradicating fossilization in the process of English teaching. At the same time, it is useful for learners to find out their deficiency in second language learning. Therefore, preventing fossilization is a significant practical goal.

1.2 Thesis organization

In the first chapter, the author presents the introduction of the thesis, including purpose and significance of the study and thesis organization.

Chapter two provides theoretical framework and an overall review of literature on fossilization. The theory includes definition, features, types and causes, especially emphasizes the studies of non-English majors’ fossilization in English writing and error analysis theory.

Chapter three is related to research design. It is composed of research questions, data collection, error identification and research methods.

Chapter four displays the results of an analysis of non-English majors’ fossilized errors so as to deplore the causes of fossilization and measures of preventing it.

In the last chapter, the author gives a conclusion of the research findings and points out the limitations of the study.

Chapter Two

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Fossilization

2.1.1 The definition of fossilization

Fossilization is an important factor of inter-language, the definition was mainly developed by Selinker and his fellows. The term "fossilization" was addressed in the field of second language acquisition by Selinker in 1972. In 1978, Selinker and Lamendella defined fossilization in terms of " a permanent cessation of inter-language learning before the learner has attained target language norms at all levels of linguistic structure and in all discourse domains in spite of the learner's positive ability, opportunity, and motivation to learn and acculturate into target society”. Then, Selinker(1996) developed the definition into “ the process whereby the learner creates a cessation of inter-language learning, thus stopping the inter-language from developing, it is hypothesized, in a permanent way … the argument is that no adult can hope to ever speak a second language in such a way that she/he is indistinguishable from native speakers of that language”.

Beyond Selinker's definitions, Robert also gives his definition of fossilization:

The definition of fossilization refers to two close notions. The first one is preserving of ancient linguistics features which have lost their grammatical functions in language. The second one is loss of productivity of a grammatical paradigm, which still remains in use in some words.

Although the definition of fossilization is various among linguists, it is indeed a problem to be solved in second language acquisition.

2.1.2 The features of fossilization

1. Permanency. Permanency refers to permanent existence of language errors. Fossilization is defined by Brown as the relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect linguistic forms into a learner’s second language competence. In addition, Selinker(1972) considers that fossilization is the situation which non-target like forms is persisting and it will exist in learners’ speech in spite of learners’ efforts to get rid of it.

2. Persistency. The third feature of fossilization is persistency, which refers to the persistent failure to achieve complete mastery of the target language. That is to say, it is hard to achieve the native speaker level although the learner has made great efforts to learn target language because the fossilization will last for a long period if it cannot be eradicated, therefore the learner will not succeed in mastering the target language.

3. Fluency. Fluency is also the characteristics of fossilization. Brown (1993) states that fossilization always happens when learners have achieved the second language system to the point of fluency, which allows the minor errors to recur unconsciously.

2.1.3 Types of Fossilization Phenomena

Selinker classified fossilization in terms of its form and property. As for form, fossilization falls into two major categories, namely individual fossilization and group fossilization. As for property, it can be divided into temporary fossilization and permanent fossilization. Besides, fossilization can also be classified into different types according to various categories such as lasting time, extent and degree (Selinker, 1972).

1. Individual fossilization and Group fossilization. In form, fossilization are divided into two major categories: individual fossilization and group fossilization. It means fossilization can be unique to an individual or can be shared by a group. Individual fossilization refers to different fossilized items or different degrees of fossilized language competence that occur to different individuals. Individual fossilization mainly comprises two types: error reappearance and language competence fossilization. The first type refers to the formation of stabilized errors on account of repeated appearance of errors in spite of corrective feedback. In other words, error reappearance refers to the reappearance of errors that have been corrected many times but still exist. Schahter compared adult second language acquisition and children’s first language acquisition, they defined fossilization as ‘the inappropriate inter-language structures, which are thought to have been corrected, but continue to appear regularly in inter-language system. Learners with low proficiency can be easily found in error fossilization. Language competence fossilization refers to the plateau in the improvement of the second language learners’ grammar and vocabulary competence. Group fossilization is that the whole community or the whole group widely accepted the fossilization. Fossilizated inter-language has been put into use universally for a long term, which leads to a new dialact. For example, pidgnization, Indian English and Singlish can to some extent illustrate the process of group fossilization.

2. Permanent fossilization and temporary fossilization. According to Selinker, some fossilized language forms get suck in the inter-language forever. Researchers called it permanent fossilization. Permanent fossilization refers to that the learner’s errors in his inter-language which have remained for a long period (usually more than 5 years according to Selinker’s time standard) or even lifelong. That is to say, once a learner’s inter-language stops to make further progress toward the target language, the inter-language will not improve. Tollefson and Firn (1983) proposed that temporary fossilization is also called stabilization. Dai WeiDong (1999) pointed out that, learners’ level will make qualitative leap if they accept optimal input such as the experience of studying abroad, and then entered into the stagnation period. The distinction between permanent fossilization and temporary fossilization attach great practical significance on overcoming temporary fossilization while permanent fossilization is difficult to eradicate.

3. Partial fossilization and overall fossilization. These two types of fossilization are classified according to the degree. Partial fossilization is that the phenomenon occurs in certain language items, the learners are capable of making progress in other areas but the same errors reappear in the inter-language. The second language learners scarcely reach the target language, but they may be able to speak fluently after a long-term training. Overall fossilization refers to the learners’ overall competence get fossilized, for example , the learners get suck at a plateau and can’t go further any more. Schumann’s empirical study in 1978 can prove it. Compared with the overall fossilization, partial fossilization can be overcome easily.

2.1.4 Causes of fossilization phenomena

Over the past decades, many researchers have done a great quantity of studies of fossilization from different perspectives to discover the causes of fossilization, and a great number of different theories have been proposed. Selinker indicated five processes as the causes of fossilization.

Selinker’s (1991) early explanation of the causes of fossilization consists of five central processes:

1. Language transfer. Selinker considered language transfer as the most decisive factor in leading to fossilization. Learners’ first language exerts influence on learners’ inter-language system, and they cannot develop the second language output.

2. Transfer of training. Transfer of training usually happens on the early stage in the process of learning. Excessive training on certain inter-language structures has been imposed on the second language learners so that they cannot continue to produce new structures successfully.

3. Inappropriate communication strategies. It refers to the learners’ usage of many skills in the communication, such as avoidance, paraphrase, simplification, reduction of lexicon and so on. When the learner has mastered the certain knowledge of the second language, they must use some communication strategies consciously or unconsciously so as to improve the fluency of communication or tackle with some communication difficulties.

4. Inappropriate learning strategies. Learners may use inappropriate strategies in their learning process and cause the fossilization in inter-language. For instance, if the learners use the correct and efficient learning strategies, it can ensure that the inter-language will approach the target language steadily, but the incorrect learning strategies can cause the fossilization.

5. Over-generalization. It refers to target language and semantic feature are over-generalized. The over-generalization of target language means that the learners put the mastered grammar rules or the usages of certain words into other contexts, but these rules and usages may be wrong or not existing in other contexts like “sayed” “thinked”. In other words, the learners use their mastered or native language knowledge to organize the target language.

Besides these five reasons, other researchers gave more explanation to fossilization.

1. The biological reasons.

Lennerberg is the prominent representative of the biological model. He advanced the theory Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) in his monumental, The Function of Language, suggesting that there was a neurologically bases critical period. CPH theory emphasizes age plays an important role in the second language learning process. Ellis proposes that children do better than adult second language learners in pronunciation and oral tests, but adult second language learners do better than children in the acquisition of learning the knowledge about grammar.

2. The acculturation reason

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