论文总字数：42933字

摘 要

1. 著名的诺贝尔文学奖获得者，约翰·斯坦贝克，是美国经济大萧条时期一位代表性作家。他的杰出作品《愤怒的葡萄》堪称20世纪一部经典之作，被认为是改变美国社会最具影响力的小说之一。《愤怒的葡萄》自出版后，就收到诸多来自外界不同角度的评论。相当一部分学者集中注意力在作品标题的象征意义层面。其他人则偏向从作品主题及人物性格方面赏析小说本身。然而，本文会尝试着从生态女性角度分析小说，并探索小说中人与自然的关系以及保持生态平衡的最佳方法。

作者试着从女性和自然这两大方面着手对小说中斯坦贝克的生态女性主义思想作相对详细的分析。一方面，文章暗示人类终将因对自然资源无休止的开采和破坏而遭受自然无情的惩罚；另一方面，本文不仅高度赞扬小说中女性人物在通过自我意识觉醒来提高社会地位的过程中所作出的不懈努力，而且也帮助越来越多的人更全面的理解女性的自我价值。

本文主要包含四个方面：第一部分首先介绍背景知识，包括对于作者约翰·斯坦贝克以及《愤怒的葡萄》这部小说的一个简要总结；第二部分是针对小说前情研究描写的文献综述；第三部分着重讨论小说中的生态女性主义思想。在这部分里，文章首先简要介绍生态女性主义知识以及斯坦贝克的生态女性主义思想。接着，会对小说中生态女性主义的表现作详细分析：女性与自然的关系以及小说中两个典型的女性人物约德妈妈和罗撒香的自我意识觉醒与奋斗历程。最后，本文会提出一些行之有效的办法来解决生态危机；第四部分是结论，重申作者对于严峻的生态危机的深切考虑，并鼓励越来越多的人挖掘新的分析这部小说的角度。

关键词： 《愤怒的葡萄》 生态女性主义 女性 自然 关系 自我觉醒

1. Introduction

1.1 A Brief Introduction to John Steinbeck

John Steinbeck (27 February 1902 – 20 December 1968) was an American novelist, playwright and essayist, best known for his novels about struggles of the migrant workers with the forces of nature around him and the passions within him as well as his acuminous awareness of political, economic and social problems. Steinbeck graduated from Salinas High School in 1919 and went from there to Stanford University until 1925 when he left permanently without completing a degree. Although Steinbeck came from a strongly middle-class background, his experiences as a laborer provided him with the first-hand observations and materials that would fuel so much of his writing.

Steinbeck’s first novel Cup of Gold was published in late 1929, just two months before the stock market crash changed the economic situation of the entire American society. The first time when he was recognized by the American people came when “The Murder” won the O. Henry Prize for short stories in 1934. The publication of Of Mice and Men in 1937 helped Steinbeck became an outstanding celebrity throughout the country. Chosen as a Book-of-the-Month-Club selection, Of Mice and Men soon became a national bestseller and was adapted for a play in late November 1937, receiving the New York Drama Critic Circle’s Award for Best Play. In 1938, Viking published The Long Valley, a collection of Steinbeck’s short stories. The Grapes of Wrath, one of Steinbeck’s most excellent works, was published in 1939 and immediately caused a literary furor at that time no matter at home and abroad. Being the top selling of 1939, the novel won the Pulitzer Prize and the American Booksellers Award. Not content to settle down comfortably, Steinbeck continued to create more and more works for people and was finally awarded the world’s highest literary recognition, a Nobel Prize for literature. (Wikipedia “John Steinbeck”)

Though enjoying huge success both financially and critically, Steinbeck remained a man of the people. He once refused an offer from Life magazine to describe the miserable life of the migrant workers in that he felt it would be wrong to make money at the cost of their misfortune.

He adhered to the principle that his writing should be on actual situations, experiences, living and working conditions among the very folks he would use as materials for his works. Only in this way, can he create valuable works, vividly and authentically.

1.2 A Brief Introduction to The Grapes of Wrath

As a classic documentary work, The Grapes of Wrath has helped Steinbeck win the Pulitzer Prize for literature, which mainly describes the miserable experiences of the dispossessed agricultural American workers during the Great Depression in the 1930s. Thousands of poor peasants are driven from their own houses and lands and are forced to move to California for survival. However, the conditions of California are completely beyond their expectation. It turns out that their struggles and efforts are in vain along the way because the living standard in California is no different in their hometown. The Joads is one of the bankrupt families who strive to make a living under the tough conditions.

The story happens just after Tom Joad is released from an Oklahoma prison for a manslaughter conviction. On his way home, Tom meets Jim Casy, the former preacher who has given up his belief and the two decide to walk together. They are told by their old neighbor Muley Graves that the family has moved to Uncle John Joad’s home nearby, where Tom finds his family is prepared to leave for California to find jobs. Along the road, Grampa and Grandma dies one after another, both Noah (the eldest Joad son) and Connie (the husband of Rose of Sharon)separate themselves from the family; the rest members, led by Ma, realize they have no choice but to go on, as there is nothing remaining for them in Oklahoma. During the process of migration, Jim is put in prison for attacking a rogue deputy. It is Tom who witnesses Jim’s killing and kills the attacker in revenge for him at the cost of becoming a fugitive. Unfortunately, Rose of Sharon gives birth to a stillborn child, and Ma, leads the family to a dry barn not far away in order to protect them from the floods. There, they find a young boy kneeling over his father, who is slowly starving to death. Rose of Sharon offers her breast to feed the starving man to stop him from dying. Her behaviors not only have a great impact on the family members, but also shocked the readers at the same time.

1.3 Purpose of Study

Steinbeck’s contemplation towards the relationships between human being and nature is quite rare and precious at that time. However, most of the domestic studies of Steinbeck’s works stay in the theme, bible symbol, style, etc. Nowadays, with the vigorous development of ecological literature, exploring Steinbeck’s ecological thoughts have significant meanings both at home and abroad. The Grapes of Wrath is widely regarded as a fiction which explores the social problems in a certain period of American history and expresses Steinbeck’s deep concern on the fate of nature and women. This thesis suggests that the novel is a deep reflection on the relationship of man, woman, and nature and appeals to people to build a fair and harmonious society based on an ethic of care and reciprocity.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Previous studies on Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath

Considered by many scholars to be Steinbeck’s finest novel, The Grapes of Wrath has been interpreted by critics from different angles since its publication. However, interest in studying the works of Steinbeck at the ecofeminist perspective is less strong than in the traditional ones. It turns out that most articles focus on the thematic concern, symbolic meanings and personality analysis. As for the ecofeminist aspect, discussions seem to be limited.

Among all these articles, quite a few scholars show great interest in the symbolic meanings of different images in The Grapes of Wrath. Yang Bo pointed out that the land turtle in the novel was a symbol of the fighting spirits---never giving up and always moving on---embodies by thousands of bankrupt farmers who had confronted with difficulties and setbacks when running away from the natural disaster. (144-146) Pan Hongsheng summarized that the grapes not only reflected the indignation of those farmers who were driven from their own lands and houses, but represented their dream and hope of yearning for lands and jobs. (59-61) Gong Yubo and Liang Yaping concluded that Rose of Sharon was one of the indestructible women Steinbeck depicted in his novel, who should be regarded as one of the brilliant models of the laboring people in the Thirties and she was the hope of the society. (88-90)

Other scholars center on the themes of the novel, in which some major characters are involved. Most of them attach their attention to Ma Joad--a typical female Steinbeck spends lots of ink to describe. Huang Anping and Duan Liqin gave a relatively thorough analysis of the major character--Ma Joad in the novel. In their opinion, Ma was a perfect woman in Steinbeck’work. Other women could not compare with her. She was not only a believable woman in reality, but also a legend woman, whose power and moral virtue surely should be admitted by all the women. (81-83) Zhao Xiuli made a detailed analysis of the heroine Ma Joad. She believed that Ma was a representative of a kind and brave Oklahom laboring woman, who played an important role in the family since she had much experience and determination to hold the family together and to fight for their living. (233-234) Xu Quan and Wang Ting pointed out that the theme of the novel underwent an expansion from individual to community, and explained that expansion was closely related to Steinbeck’s philosophical points of view. (59-62)

2.2 Need of study

Though Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath has been interpreted for many times by different scholars, analyses from the perspective of ecofeminism are still rare today. As few people have ever made a detailed and complete analysis of ecofeminism in The Grapes of Wrath, the author of this thesis inspired by the contemporary severe environmental problems, intends to study at length its effects in The Grapes of Wrath as well as its connection with the real life. By analyzing this novel in detail, this study hopes much more attention should be paid to women problems in the modern society like leftover ladies issue, and more importantly, an effective and regulated mainstream method should be carried out.

3. Ecofeminist Reflections in The Grapes of Wrath

3.1 Ecofeminism and John Steinbeck

3.1.1 Main Concepts of Ecofeminism

Ecofeminism refers to a movement that shows the inevitable connections between the exploitation of nature and the domination of women. The term is firstly put forward by the French feminist Francoise d’ Eaubonne in her two works--Le Feminisme ou la Mort and Ecologie Feminisme : Revolution ou Mutation in the 1970s. But it is not until the mid 1980s that the ecological feminist ideas arise people’s attention and gradually have a great impact on the studies of ecological environment. The typical representative ecofeminists include Karen J Warren, Carolyn Merchant, Rosemary R. Reuther, etc. It initiates to discuss the connections between the denigration of women and oppression of nature. The main concepts of Ecofeminism are as follows:

1. There exist important connections between the control of women and the control of nature. Compared with men, women are much closer to nature. Nature has suffered a series of oppressions in the past decades, so do women.
2. In ecofeminists’ point of view, life on earth is an interconnected web, not a hierarchy. It is absolutely wrong to regard nature and women as something low.
3. Human beings should try their best to protect and respect nature instead of attempting to control or damage it.

A majority of ecofeminists agree with the views that the oppression of women is equivalent to the persecution of nature to some degree. They are against of all forms of oppressions and believe that it is impossible to achieve the liberation of women if people continue to ignore the importance of natural liberation. Charlene Spretnak believes that there exists a historical, symbolic, and political relationship between the denigration of nature and the female in Western cultures. Women have come into ecofeminism through several directions, including the environmental movements, various types of alternative politics, and the feminist spirituality movements. (289-90)

3.1.2 The Purposes of Ecofeminism

There is no doubt that the influence of ecofeminism is becoming more and more important in Western tradition during the past 30 years. Doing researches from the perspective of ecofeminism has rapidly been developing into a strong cultural ideological trend. For ecofeminists, nature and women have always been associated with each other, so it will be better to establish a new social order which is not based on the exploitation of women and nature as resources but on the full use of the talents of both male and female as well as the protection of the whole environment. Ecofeminists argue that it is of great value to take the interests of women and nature into consideration while building the new social order, which require people learn to respect the diversity of all life in the planet, including the diversity that exists in the natural world as well as the diversity within humanity. Ecofeminists opposes all kinds of domination, exploitation and oppression. The task of ecofeminism is to rescue women and nature from their former debased status and establish a harmonious, healthy and sustainable development principle.

3.1.3 John Steinbeck’s Ecofeminism

John Steinbeck’s many works concentrate on the American land and people. He speaks for the poor and defends their rights. His novels show people a magnificent picture of the tough living and working conditions in America in Great Depression through authentic and vivid description. For a long time, critics at home and abroad are used to be misled to regard Steinbeck as a “wrathful writer” for his novel The Grapes of Wrath filled with extreme factors and thoughts, which leads people to neglect his ecological ideas in his works.

Steinbeck is good at portraying women when designing natural images in his most articles in order to explore the indefinable relationships between nature and women, just like the ecofeminists. Generally speaking, Steinbeck’s ecofeminist thought is made up of three reasons: a) He keeps a keen interest in biology and has spend plenty of time reading a wide variety of books early in his time. b) Steinbeck’s parents share his passion of reading and writing and always encourage him to do related researches. c) His close friend, Ed Ricketts, has provided a series of assistance to guide his studies, who actually seems to be a philosophical and biological mentor to Steinbeck.

3.2 Destruction of Nature

3. 2.1 Plants and Lands

As is known to all, with the development of economy, more and more people seek for economic benefits at the cost of environmental destruction. As a result, nature has to be destroyed and exploited without restriction by those people, which eventually leads to ecological imbalance and in return threatens the existence of human society out of question. The Grapes of Wrath is such a novel which depicts the vicious circle of American society in Great Depression incisively and vividly.

At the very start of the novel, Steinbeck shows the readers the baneful impacts of the Dust Bowl--an ecological and human disaster that took place in the southwest region of America in the 1930s:

In the water-cut gullies the earth dusted down in dry little streams. ... And as the sharp sun struck day after day, the leaves of the young corn became less stiff and erect; they bent in a curve at first, and then, as the central ribs of strength grew weak, each leaf titled downward.Then it was June, and the sun shone more fiercely. The brown lines on the corn leaves widened and moved in on the central ribs. The weeds frayed and edged back toward their roots. The air was thin and the sky more pale; and every day the earth paled. (2)

Subsequently, the author centers on the blustery weather in order to draw bleak atmosphere for the whole novel:

The wind grew stronger, whisked under stones, carried up straws and old leaves, and even little clods,...and the corn fought the wind with its weakened leaves until the roots were freed by the prying wind and then each stalk settled wearily sideways toward the earth and pointed the direction of the wind. (3)

The two typical scenes not only make the harsh environment of that time present again, but attract readers’ attention and prompt them to think about the causes of Dust Bowl. People are in danger everyday because of the Dust Bowl: they can not see the roads and even finding the door when they go out for a walk. They have nothing to do but to eat the fruit of their own way. Muray Bookchin, an American socialist, political and social philosopher, points out, “The very notion of the domination of nature by man stems from the very real domination of human by human.” (1)

Apart from plants, the destruction of nature is largely characterized by the damage to the lands in that industrial civilization meets the demand of human beings through conquering and possessing the lands.

The tractors came over the roads and into the fields,...Snubnosed monsters, raising the dust and sticking their snouts into it, straight down the country, across the country, through fences, through dooryards, in and out of gullies in straight lines...They ignored hills and gulches, water courses, fences, houses. (29)

Large-scale of mechanized production engulf the lands people need to live on and cut off the bond between human being and lands. Though the honest peasants are extremely reluctant to lose their lands--something more important than their lives, they are forced to leave their houses because they have nothing to eat and no places to live since losing their lands. Steinbeck implies that the more human being deprive from nature, the more severe punishment they will receive in their life. If people continue to abuse the natural resources, they can only cut their own throat at last.

3.2.2 Animals

In addition to plants and lands, animals also play an important role in demonstrating human being’ crime. In The Grapes of Wrath, Steinbeck’s depiction of animals is filled with love and care. However, the author will give different connotations the animals represent according to the needs of the novel. In the first chapter of the novel, Steinbeck points out a detailed scene “Horses came to the watering troughs and nuzzled the water to clear the surface dust.” (4) to satirize the bad influence of ecological disaster caused by humankind. In the third chapter, Steinbeck attaches importance to creating such a vibrant picture:

The sun lay on the grass and warmed it, and in the shade under the grass the insects moved, ants and ant lions to set traps for them, grassshoppers to jump into the air and flick their yellow wings for a second, sow bugs like little armadillos, plodding restlessly on many tender feet. (12)

On one hand, the scene with vigor and vitality symbolizes the friendly and harmonious relationship between the author and animals. Besides, the ecological thoughts of Steinbeck spontaneously reveal between the lines; on the other, it expresses the happy life of animals despite the tragedy of human beings and teaches people a lesson that nature can exist without human being while humankind will go with the wind out of nature.

Subsequently, Steinbeck turns his attention to a land turtle, whose entire migration runs through the novel. Some scholars consider the turtle as a symbol of life for it struggles tireless and steadfastly all the way in order to achieve a chance of survival. Small as it is, it interprets the meaning of life through its own efforts: never give up and one will achieve success. In chapter eight, Steinbeck speaks highly of life and advocates that ecofeminism respect the diversity of life as he writes:

The cotton field scurried with waking life, the quick flutter of morning birds feeding on the ground, the scamper over the clods of disturbed rabbits.(55)

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