论文总字数：33364字

摘 要

在语言的发展过程中，除了探究教与学的因素外，语言磨蚀，作为语言习得的伴生产物，对语言的发展也具有重要影响。而通过调查研究，我们发现语言因素和非语言因素都对语言教学有莫大影响。

本文旨在阐明非语言因素的影响，在对国内外研究进行综述基础之上，重在分析如年龄、性别、学习动机、学习能力和种族归属等多种因素。

本文的目的是为外语学习者提供一些建设性意见，希望帮助提高他们的外语能力，使他们的外语学习更有效。同时也希望为外语教师提供一些启示，通过对外语磨蚀规律的把握帮助他们学生的英语学习。

关键词：外语磨蚀;非语言因素;对外语教与学的建议

Contents

1. Introduction………………………………………………………………1

1.1 Background of the Study…………………………………………………….2

1.2 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………2

1.3 Structure of the Thesis……………………………………………………...3

1. Literature Review…………………………………………………………3

2.1 The Definition of Attrition………………………………………………3

2.2 Research on Extralinguistic Factors of Attrition…………………………3

1. Analysis of Extralinguistic Factors of Attrition …………………………4

3.1 Age at the Onset of language Attrition……………………………………4

3.2 Sex Difference ………………………………………………………........5

3.3 Learning Motivation………………………………………………...6

3.4 Language Aptitude…………………………………………………………7

3.5 Ethnic Affiliation…………………………………………………………..8

1. Suggestions for Language teachers and Learners…………………….9

4.1 Emphasis on the Critical Period…………………………………………..9

4.2 Different Learning Strategies to Different Sexes…………………………10

4.3 Making Good Use of Emotional Factors…………………………………11

4.4 Improving the Language Ability Before Attrition………………………12

4.5 Paying Attention to the Ethnic Effect……………………………12

5. Conclusion………………………………………………………………..12

Works Cited…………………………………………………………………...14

1. Introduction

1.1 Background of the study

Compared with the research on the language acquisition, the investigation and research about attrition and loss of the language skills have been in the relatively recent development. The concept of the language attrition, referring to the individual’s language forgetting, was first brought into our mind in the 1980 conference at the University of Pennsylvania called Loss of language Skills. Since then, research about the language attrition has grew rapidly in different countries.

But as the converse process of the language acquisition, language attrition, which has experienced great changes in the last half century, have achieved great success in the western countries. While the relevant study in our country has not been perfected and the systematic research has still been in the initial development stage, apart from some simple introduction by some scholars, such as Zhong Shuneng(2003:66-70) and Cai Hansong(2004:924-926). Therefore, it’s time for us to take more time and efforts to build the theoretical system and to make the foreign language attrition research more complete and comprehensive.

1.2 Significance of the study

With the irresistible trend of globalization, our country has been brought into closer contact with overseas. In order to adapt to the new international environment, more and more people hope to learn English well. But the enlarged investment in English education don’t change the embarrassing situation that most English learners are faced with, and the research results about the language acquisition cannot solve the problem fully.

There are still so much unknown about language acquisition and language learning. Among the theoretical arguments are two major issues: 1)the contribution of language attrition research to our understanding of human memory and language change in individuals and groups; and 2)the relations and correspondences between processes of acquisition and attrition.(de Bot and Weltens, 1991). It is the significance of the study. By the detailed research, the paper thus can find useful ways to learn English well, which is helpful to improve the comprehensive abilities of the 21st century talents. The paper here aims to look on extra-linguistic factors as the entry point to investigate the foreign language attrition, and to make the theoretical framework of foreign language attrition more complete and comprehensive; on the other hand, the paper is eager to provide enlightenment to foreign language teaching and learning problems in combination with the current educational situations.

1.3 Overall structure of this thesis

The paper is divided into five chapters: Chapter One presents the basic introduction about the language attrition as well as its research background, and wishes to find its realistic and theoretical meaning through the investigation and research; in Chapter Two, the literature review is elaborated, on the basis of which the former experimental contribution is pointed out and relevant shortcomings are picked out; When it comes to Chapter Three, those extra linguistic factors are analyzed respectfully, including biological age, gender difference, learning motivation, language aptitude and ethnic affiliation, which are further explained in association with the experimental results and the proved conclusion; Then, in response to the analysis and research, the thesis puts forward some useful methods to suppress the phenomenon of language attrition, wishing to be constructive to foreign language teaching and learning problems; Last but not least, the thesis is summarized, and the paper not only gives its reflection but also makes some contribution about this topic. Moreover, the weakness needed to be dealt with is also presented.

1. Literature Review

2.1 Definition of attrition

From Wikipedia, language attrition is the loss of a first or second language or a portion of that language.

From Kopke and Schmid, language attrition is the non-pathological loss of the acquired language, which is trans-generational loss of language skills.

From Freed, language attrition is the whole and partial loss of a individual or group’s language.

Through the analysis on the characteristic and essence of language attrition, the paper defines it as the decay or loss of first or second language in some specific language environment because of the linguistic factors and extra-linguistic factors. On the other hand, according to what language (L1 or L2) is attributed and where language (L1 or L2 context) is attributed. (Van Els, 1989), there are four types in all: L1 loss in L1 environment; L1 loss in an L2 setting; L2 loss in an L1 setting and finally, L2 loss in an L2 environment. The paper here focuses on the third one. It refers to the attrition of foreign language learned at school and also to the less well-documented phenomenon of L2 attrition due to remigration(Cohen:1989; Olshtain:1986).

2.2 Research on extralinguistic factors of attrition

Through the careful study of the third one, linguists find that there are many factors affecting the foreign/second language attrition, including the linguistic ones and extra-linguistic ones. Linguistic factors, related to the foreign language attrition, are displayed as below:

1) language proficiency level prior to attrition

2) exposure to the target language

3) foreign/second language acquisition modes

4) reading and writing ability etc.(Monika S. Schmid:2010)

Certainly, except for the linguistic ones, the research reveals that the extra-linguistic factors also play a vital role in the foreign language attrition. The paper mainly makes analysis from five aspects: age, sex, learning motivation,language aptitude, and ethnic affiliation. In the following, each extra-linguistic one will be explained and analyzed in combination with experimental results and proved conclusion.

As for the range of the extra-linguistic ones, the paper would rather focus on the most important aspects than take everything into account, such as the personal feature (motivation, intelligence and some emotional factors). In the research process, many related studies should be expanded and deepened in allusion to the teaching characteristics at home and abroad, so that we can look into the occurrence of attrition get a new method to prove it . Inevitably, the current research literature is only limited to the phenomenal description, because it’s difficult to make analysis on linguistic theories. But we can promote theoretical meaning with regard to the functional mechanism of those important factors according to the present situation of education. In addition, linguists sometimes only lay emphasis on the single factor without consideration of the collaborative effect among different influencing factors, which also needs us to concern.

1. Analysis of Extralinguistic Factors of Attrition

3.1 Age at the onset of language attrition

According to the survey, age can affect the process of the language attrition, which will influence the efficiency of language learning, as well as the performance on some tasks. On the other hand, there is evidence to suggest that the cognitive ageing effect is, to some degree, delayed or counterbalanced in active bilinguals.

In order to examine the influence of age on the foreign language learners, research findings give attention to two main aspects about the language attrition: comparison between children and adults and comparison among children.

Hansen (1980) found that the comparison between children and adults exist in the degree of attrition. He conducted an in-depth research to the two American school children who went to the India in their childhood for three times with their parents and learn the Urdu in North Africa. They had been comparable to the Pakistan children in their foreign language skills every time in India, but their mother couldn’t catch up with them. When they grew up, almost 20 years later, however, the two subjects’ Urdu were almost attrited and even couldn’t remember the single word. Their mother instead could understand most of Urdu.

For the role of age among children FL attrition, Cohen (1989), Hansen(1980), Kaufman, Koike ( 1990 ) and Yukawa (1996) all conducted a research about it, and they made the similar conclusion in common, that is the young is fast than the old in the speed of attrition. Therefore we can draw the conclusion—the children language attrition is faster than that of the old.

3.2 Gender difference

The way in which female and male speakers acquire, use and process language is probably one of the controversial topics in linguistics today. So is the way of how foreign language attrition takes place between two sexes. According to the some experiments, gender differences in English language attrition are researched in three aspects: listening, reading and writing skills, during the same period. And in order to prove it, more precise data is required to carry out more tests, so the right results can be got.

3.2.1. Gender differences of attrition in listening

Because the listening data in the text is numerical and can be ordered, so many linguists adopt the Mann-Whitney U test in the study. Take the recent test made by Pan(2012) for example, she chose almost 150 female participants and 150 male participants as the samples and watched their difference in the three months. She made a survey from four aspects: short conversation listening, blank filling listening, passage listening and total listening. Finally, the experiment showed that male subjects did not significantly differ from female ones in short conversation listening during the three months; male subjects did not significantly differ from female ones in blank filling listening during the three months; male subjects did not significantly differ from female ones in passage listening during the three months; male subjects did not significantly differ from female ones in total listening during the three months. Because the levels of significance of all items are above 0.05(the measurement criterion) we can therefore draw the conclusion that there is no significant gender difference in terms of listening during the three months.

3. 2. 2. Gender differences of attrition in reading

Since the data concerning gender differences of attrition in reading skills is similar to the listening skills, the same test method, the Mann-Whitney U test is adopted in the reading analysis. There are also three aspects she chose as the test items: multiple choices reading, blank filling reading, and total reading. After furthering exploration, we get the similar results: there is no significant difference between sexes in terms of the reading skills during the three months.

3. 2. 3. Gender differences of attrition in writing

Since the data regarding the writing is quite different from the listening and reading skills, the adopted method will is quite different. The writing data are numerical but normally distributed while the sample is still random and independent, thus the independent-sample tests are used to judge gender difference of attrition in writing skills. The test uses the content, structure and grammar as the measurement criteria, finally discovering that females suffer greater attrition than males in content, structure and grammar. But the difference in grammar is significant which can be shown by the values of t and P(t=0.36, Pgt;0.05); therefore, it can prove that the second hypothesis is wrong and females suffer more attrition than males in all writing skills except for grammar.

Apart from the above research, another test also find that the impact of sex have no effect on any tasks(Kopke,1999). According to the results proved by famous neurolinguistics, sex-based difference in lateralization and reliance on declaration and procedural memory also indicate the possibility of different strategies used for some tasks.

3.3. Learning motivation

Motivation is defined as the willingness of and the persistence in learning the foreign language. Different learners have different motivation, which in turn affect their learning results.

Motivation is divided into two kinds: integrative motivation and instrumental motivation. Integrative motivation is the desire to integrate with the target language group, which indicates learners’ personal interest in the target group and its culture.Those who are possessed of the integrative motivation are prone to touching with people from other clans and learn about their cultures. This type of the learners has the strong motivation and they can maintain it for a long time, so they have more access to language input. While for the instrumental motivation, it is out of the utilitarian purpose, thus it reflects the favorable incentive and the practical value. It is no doubt that the motivation will promote the target language learning to some degree, but their focus will be limited to what is useful for them , which tend to causing the language loss if only they achieve their aims.

With those findings, Ni Chuan Bin who is a famous linguistic professor made a survey with 950 questionnaires that is sent to different areas. Excluded from the unfinished and useless ones, he took back about 750 questionnaires. By the series of steps, he proved the difference between two kinds of the motivation. He drew some conclusions: first, both of the two play the active role in increasing the contact with target language; second, those who have the integrative motivation suffer from less foreign language motivation than those with the instrumental motivation; last, cultivating the active motivation and do more practice can avoid language attrition and promote learning efficiency.

3.4. Learning Aptitude

Learning aptitude is one of effective factors, which produces great influence on the foreign language attrition which depends on the language proficiency before the occurrence of attrition.

In its most generic conception, language aptitude is known as an innate, relatively fixed ability to acquire and process language structure. The degree of language aptitude within the normal population varies significantly, and moreover, appears to be unrelated with other specific factors, such as general intelligence and personality. By experimental proof, however, it has a positive correlation with the language proficiency .

According to Kennedy’s experiment, the newly-trained learners with elementary command of the foreign language, if suffering the first-six-year of language attrition, would have the same language level as those entirely untrained. By contrast, the majority of their language ability can be maintained if learners are exposed to the bilingual environment, and they can make their language aptitude in function. In addition, researchers find a distinct dividing-line that makes differences of language attrition on people with different levels, and which is defined as the Critical Threshold Value(CTV). When FL learners have reached the CTV, they will maintain most language competence; otherwise, their language attrition speed will quicken. Thus, learners have to retain a high level of L2 proficiency and enhance their learning aptitude in order to prevent from the foreign language attrition.

3.5 Ethnic affiliation

There is a substantial body of research into the role of ethnic affiliation for the development of bilingualism, providing compelling evidence that the factor is also among the important reasons for predicting success in the ultimate attainment of second and foreign language learners, whether for socio-ethnic or neurobiological reasons.

There are so many nationalities in the world, and each nationality has their own language and culture. However, what is interesting is that we choose English as our international language. The reason is that Britain as the ever sun-never-setting country in the world owns lots of colonies, so English, as the invading language, has the forceful influence on the world. That is, English language is accept by other countries by the invasional affiliation.

However，the influence that language makes doesn’t never change, it is said that the ethnic affiliation is closely linked to the diplomatic relations. Take the Iraq conflict as example, after the British-invasion takes place, the study shows there is some extremist boycotting the English language and their culture in Iraq, which slowly promote the language attrition, especially for these primary English learners( Schmid, 2004).

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