论文总字数：37785字

摘 要

中介语是处于母语与目标语之间一个独立的，合法的，动态的语言系统。它是二语学习过程中学习者把母语的语言规则转移到第二语言的语言规则，运用母语语言规则简化第二语言的语言规则的产物。中介语是二语习得的一个重要特征。对中介语石化现象的研究将有助于英语教学。本文从中介语定义入手，介绍了石化的定义，分析了其产生的原因，然后提出了一些在英语口语教学过程中减少英语学习者石化现象产生的对应策略。

关键词：中介语，石化，英语口语教学

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 2

2.1 The definition of interlanguage 2

2.2 The definition of fossilization 3

3. Causes of Interlanguage Fossilization 4

3.1 The biological model 5

3.2 The acculturation model 5

3.3 The interactional model 6

3.4 Selinker’s five central processes 7

3.5 Ellis’s internal and external factors 8

4. Enlightenment for Oral English Teaching 9

4.1 Reducing the interference of mother tongue 9

4.2 Ensuring input goes before output 11

4.3 Giving learner’s appropriate feedback 12

4.4 Understanding error as the evidence of learning 12

5. Conclusion 14

Works Cited 15

1. Introduction

In the late 1970s, second language acquisition research has achieved great development. Linguists were paying more attention to interlanguage. Selinker(1972) raised the core concept in second language learning—interlanguage. It is an independent, linguistic system which is different from native language and target language. The existence of interlanguage gives second language acquisition a new study method. However, interlanguage fossilization is an inevitable problem for researchers. For most second language learners, interlanguage will gradually approach to target language during the second language learning process. However it is hardly possible for second language learners to achieve native speaker’s language competence. If second language learners learn the second language to a certain degree, several characteristics of interlanguage such as grammar, lexical meaning and pronunciation are inclined to stagnate. Such phenomenon may even hard for learners to eliminate. We call such phenomenon as fossilization. Fossilization can be divided into two types: temporary fossilization and persistent fossilization. Fossilization will occur no matter how old or how much instruction of the target language. The author once had an internship in a secondary school for nearly three months, and she found that many students at first attained certain degree of stagnation after studying oral English for a long time.

Due to the fact that fossilization is widely existing and hard to overcome, therefore we have to carry on a further study to facilitate the oral English teaching in our daily life. Moreover to improve our second language learner’s communicative competence.

The thesis is consisted of the five parts. The author introduces the background information of the fossilization phenomena and then discusses the importance of the fossilization phenomenon in the first part. And the author lists interlanguage fossilization phenomena’s literature review, respectively describing the definition of interlanguage and fossilization in the second part in the second part. In the third part, the author summarizes the causes of interlanguage fossilization phenomenon. The author finds out potential ways which may be advisable to prevent the fossilization of second language learners in the fourth part. In the last part, the author arrives at a conclusion of the whole paper.

2. Literature Review

2.1 The definition of interlanguage

The behaviorism dominated the linguistic field at the end of the 1960s in relating to the essence of errors. Interference means first language and target language’s difference. And interference makes learning become difficult for most second language learners. In the early 1970s Chomsky raised second language acquisition investigation, which is one of the most important fields of studies in applied linguistics. Second language acquisition investigations transformed the interest from teachers to students and learning process. For second language learners, learning a language means to make hypothesis about the target language. Ellis in the middle of 1980s made a review of the development in second language acquisition. Two representative theories are Interlanguage and error analysis. Both of them have received great concern in the linguistic field from researchers.

Interlangauge can be regarded as an internal system that a learner has constructed at a single point of time, so we can call it as “IL” in a narrow sense. In a broad sense, Interlanguage refers to “series of interconnected system that characterized the learners’ progress over time”, which is called as “IL continuum” or “IL” (Selinker 180). It is observed that IL is governed by its own unique and coherent internalized rule or system, which is rarely in line with target language’s system. Interlanguage is a continuum which is different from a learner’s native language and target language. The learner’s amount of errors will probably decrease gradually if the learner learns the target language to a certain degree. However, it is hard for the learner to prevent the onset of errors. The part of errors reappearing in his performance of IL may be fossilized.

Interlangauge is “an approximative system.”(Corder 18). To sum up, interlanguage is a type of language. It is produced by second and foreign language learners during their foreign language learning process. The language is different from the learner’s mother tongue and the target language. Interlangauge is a kind of system employed by learners in order to acquire the native speaker’s competence. The learner produces utterances which are not identical to those native speakers when expressing the same idea to understand the target language. The particular characteristics and rules of interalangauge are: Firstly, the learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules. Secondly, the learner’s grammar is permeable. Thirdly, the learner’s competence is transitional. Fourthly, the learner’s competence is variable.

2.2 The definition of fossilization

Interalngauge has three important characteristics: systematicity, permeability and fossilization. Fossilization is one of the significant characteristics of interlanguage. For better understanding the definitions of interlanguage fossilization, Selinker regarded language as a psychological mechanism, which cannot be eliminated. As Selinker first introduced the term-fossilization, the definition has become authoritative in the second language acquisition field. However the definition of interlanguage is challenged by second language acquisition theories due to the development of the second language acquisition field. Language fossilization means the incorrect use of language forms which lasts relatively persist (Brown 12). He found that the word “cryogenation” could be used to replace “fossilization” since the phenomenon of the ineralngauge could be changed under certain conditions. Therefore, Selinker redefined the term “fossilization”: the speaker will become inclined to keep linguistic items or rules which can be seen as fossilization in their interlanguage system. This system may be related to the learner’s target language system. Such phenomenon will happen regardless of the learner’s age or how much knowledge of the target language he has gained. Fossilization refers to the condition when grammar rules, language projects and systematic knowledge in learner’s interlanguage system become stable. The increase of age and learning may be ineffective in changing the state (Dai Weidong 22). Recently, the term fossilization has been used by researchers to refer to such a condition: It may be difficult for second language learners to reach the target language competence. Then these non-target forms produced by learners will become fossilized in interlanguage. In second language learning, it is common for learners to fail to acquire the target language completely. Fossilization is defined as a process. It means that when a person speaks or writes a language, he may become used to use incorrect forms. These forms will occur in the learner’s pronunciation, grammar and so on. Fossilization may occur no matter how old the learner is or how much knowledge he has gained. Selinker thought that fossilization could be divided into “individual fossilization” and “group fossilization” concerning different fossilized entities. He also proposed temporary fossilization and permanent fossilization. They are two stages of fossilization and both of them are significant for second language learning and teaching studies.

With the development of globalization, the demand for communicative competence in English is becoming greater in China. The requirement for speaking in the secondary schools is set clearly in New National Criteria for English course. Language plays a social role in daily communication. If we compare speaking with listening, reading and writing, we can find that speaking is the most important skill for language learners. Although the communication ability of the learner has been paid more attention, the learner’s overall language proficiency is always being neglected. Learners are inclined to maintain errors, for example, they may produce Chinese collocations. Besides, they can only take part in simple conversations such as going shopping, asking ways or greetings and so on. Complicated themes or sentence patterns are hardly been seen in learner’s daily communication. After we made an inspection on the condition of the oral English learning of Chinese learners, it is observed that without proper direction, learner’s errors will occur and maintain. They preferred to use shorter and less complex sentences. That is to say, the learner’s oral English competence will fossilize. Therefore, it is imperative to find out the potential causes of fossilization which will become beneficial for the oral English teaching in our daily life.

3. Causes of Interlanguage Fossilization

Researches on interlanguage fossilization have been listed above. They explored the basis definitions of fossilization. Then these positive results have made the basis for the study of fossilization. However, there are still some deficiencies. Firstly, most of the studies are based on the researcher’s hypothesis, which lack the validity. Secondly, the majority of studies only investigate the causes of fossilization from one aspect. Thirdly, the categorization of interlanguage fossilization has not been made in these year’s studies. Moreover, several previous studies on interlanguage fossilization just studied on the whole, few of them are concerned with oral English teaching. Therefore, it is necessary to give a specific study. The causes are listed in the following part. They are the biological model, the acculturation model, the interactional model, Selinker’s five central processes and Ellis’s internal and external factors.

3.1 The biological model

The biological model believes that fossilization is caused by the internal factors of human. For example, biological factors are an indispensable part. Some second language learners are far more vulnerable to fossilize than the other learners due to the genetic predisposition (Selinker 19). Genetically learning ability determines the difference between learners. Age is an important biological factor. It is known that compared with adults, children have the ability to learn second language more easily, proficiently. Based on the remarkable differences between adults and children in the speed and proficiency of language acquisition, linguists and brain scientists advanced a theory of critical period hypothesis. This theory contends that during the process of brain growth, there exists a critical period. In this period language acquisition will become easily and naturally. However, the brain may lack the ability of language input after a certain age. Penfield and Roberts are the pioneers to formulate the theory. But what they primarily proposed is the concept of the optimum age. It refers to that the best age for language acquisition is no more than 10 years old. During this period, the brain is in the condition of plasticity. As puberty begins, the plasticity will gradually disappear. This is the result of lateralization. Therefore it is difficult for second language learners to achieve the same competence of native speakers. While the fact is that if the adult’s age surpasses the critical period to learn language, he is bound to employ mother tongue rules to cognize rules of target language subconsciously. That is to say, interlanguage will occur.

3.2 The acculturation model

Researchers who are interested in second language acquisition also sum up the external factors. These factors are easy to cause fossilization. Acculturation model describes the external causes of fossilization. For learners, the acculturation means the process to become adapted to a new culture (Brown 12). Based on this theory, acculturation is the social and psychological integration of the second language learners with the target language group. In addition, acculturation is a determined factor which controls the linguistic success by second language learners in the acculturation theory. The degree of the learner’s acculturation to a target language group will control the degree of the learner’s acquisition to the target language (Schuman 391). Fossilization will occur when a learner’s acculturation to the target language stops. That is to say, fossilization is caused by a lack of or inability to process input, or the learner’s social and psychological distance from the second language’s culture. He also revealed eight factors. They are likely to affect the social distance, which are social dominance, integration pattern, enclosure, cohesiveness, size of the group and culture congruence. Schumann believed that fossilization could be overcome by decreasing the mother tongue and target language’s psychological distance of the learner. Though the model can’t explain the causes of language fossilization, it can be regarded as one factor which leads to interlanguage fossilization.

Language transfer is referred to as the effect of one language on the learning of another in learning theory. There are two types of language transfer. They are positive transfer and negative transfer. If the same form exists between the native language and target language, the positive transfer will occur. It will have a positive effect on second language learning. Negative transfer means the interference of the native language during the second language learning process. The learner may use rules of native language in the target language, and then the error will occur. Usually the grammar or vocabulary usage will become the interference for learners during the second language learning process. Fossilization will appear if the phenomenon exists in the long term. Generally speaking, when the learner’s interlanguage is at the primary stage, most of the errors are caused by the language transfer. Once the level of foreign language rose, the amount of errors caused by language transfer will decrease.

3.3 The interactional model

Vigil and Oller raised the interactional model. They contended that conversational interaction such as cognitive or affective feedback determines whether the component of the learner’s interlanguage system could lead to fossilization. Guesses along with beliefs can be regarded as cognitive feedback. They can be used to show whether the second language learner understands the linguistic forms and decides the tendency towards interlanguage fossilization. Facial expression and gestures give the learner a way to test whether he internalizes the corrected form of the target language. In the interactional model, cognitive and affective feedback both can be positive, negative and neutral (Vigil 40). Positive cognitive feedback along with positive affective feedback may cause fossilization. Negative cognitive feedback along with positive affective feedback helps second language learners to improve their knowledge of target language. For example, if the teacher uses positive affective and cognitive feedback, students will be encouraged to learn deeper. If the teacher fails to point out the error in student’s language, fossilization will occur. In conclusion, it is advisable for learners to overcome the wrong rules in order to find the correct ones.

3.4 Selinker’s five central processes

Selinker proposed five principal processes which can be regarded as the explanation of the causes of interlanguage fossilization. He believed that these five processes directly having some effect on the second language acquisition. The five processes are: language transfer, transfer of training, inappropriate learning strategies, inappropriate communication strategies and overgeneralization.

Language transfer is the first process. It means one language’s effect on the other language. There are two types of language transfer: one is positive transfer. The other is negative transfer. According to Selinker’s view, learner’s target language is always influenced by their mother tongue. That is to say, it is the negative transfer which makes learner’s errors. Therefore, language transfer is the most decisive factor which leads to fossilization in interlanguage.

The second process is transfer of training. Non-target language forms will cause inappropriate ways of training and teaching material. These forms may constantly exist in learner’s interlanguage. For second language learners, if they take in too much training on certain structure of the target language, they will gradually fail to acquire the new structures of the target language. For example, if the learner has been trained too much on the usage of the verb “be”, he would develop the habit of using the verb “be” in inappropriate contexts.

The third process is inappropriate learning strategies. As we all know that fossilization may occur when learners use inappropriate learning strategies in their second language learning procedure. Most of the second language learners, for instance, may directly translate first language sentences into second language sentences. Eventually, fossilization can be the long-term result if the learner wants to achieve communication ability rather than language ability.

The fourth process is inappropriate communication strategies. Studies indicate that second language learners often use reduced strategy like avoidance or simplification to reach the purpose for exchanges by the language. However, such communication strategies may prevent second language acquisition. Such as if a learner would like to express the sentence “lost my way”. He may occasionally forget the word “way”, so he may replace the word “road” with the word “way”. The sentence will become “I lost my road.” At last, the hearer still can understand the sentence easily, so the learner will repeatedly use the form thus the non-target language forms are therefore to be fossilized in the learner’s interlanguage system.

The last process is overgeneralization. It refers to the fact that second language learners apply the language rule in different contexts. They may over-generalize the plural noun rule, past tense rule or third-person verb rule. Such kind of sentence will be made like: I like to play with childrens. If these errors cannot be corrected immediately, fossilization may occur.

3.5 Ellis’s internal and external factors

Ellis summarized the possible causes of interlanguage fossilization as internal factors and external factors. Internal factors are made up of age and learner’s unwillingness to acculturate. External factors are made up of scare learning opportunity, learner’s pressure on communication and the effect of feedback on student’s second language learning process. Age is significant as an internal factor (Scovel 24). He believed that if the learner reached a critical age then their brains would lose plasticity. Certain linguistic features cannot be mastered finally. Because of the various social and psychological factors, learners make no effect to adopt cultural norms in target language. (Schuman 400). Positive cognitive feedback results in fossilization, while negative feedback helps avoid fossilization (Vigil 180).

4. Enlightenment for Oral English Teaching

From the analysis of the complicated linguistic, psychological and socio-cultural factors which lead to the interlanguage fossilization, we realize that the language error is an unavoidable natural phenomenon but not a negative factor. The key lies in how to minimize the number of interlanguage fossilization combined with student’s individual situation in teaching oral English practice. In the fourth part of the paper, the author raises four advisable suggestions based on the causes which have been analyzed in the third part. These corresponding implications may be beneficial for oral English teaching in daily life.

4.1 Reducing the interference of mother tongue

As is shown in the previous part, age is an important biological factor. According to the critical period hypothesis, after puberty language learning may become more difficult. The reason is that the brain cannot adapt as usual. So for most students who have missed the puberty, they may prone to employ mother tongue rules to cognize rules of the target language subconsciously. Negative language transfer will occur at this period. Second language acquisition process will be affected by the native language (Cai Shuping 100). The effect of the native language on the target language can be regarded as the negative transfer. We can also call it as interference. Usually learners will use the native language’s rule to learn the target language in the primary stage of foreign language learning, owing to the fact that the learner is unfamiliar with the target language’s knowledge, they can only depend on the knowledge that they have learned in the first language acquisition process. They often apply the mother tongue knowledge concerned with grammar or pronunciation in the context of target language, the interference is said to occur at this time. In consequence, it takes students more time than usual to acquire the second language. Moreover, the interference impedes the foreign language learning to be done smoothly.

So the teacher should attach importance to the influence of mother tongue interference on the learner’s oral English learning process. At first, teachers should become used to speak English in class. At the same time, students should use English to answer questions. Teachers have an important role in organizing various activities to inspire students such as English dialogues, story-telling activities and so on. By conducting these activities, students will gradually become interested in learning English. Then, it is advisable for the teacher to list the differences between mother tongue and the target language. Therefore fossilization can be avoided. Ultimately, learners are motivated to think as if they were native speakers. They are encouraged to make a comparison between the culture in native language and target language. So learners will find out the likenesses and dissimilarities of the native language and target language. Moreover, instructive tool like an English-English dictionary is beneficial for the later studying of the target language. Also the teacher could require students to read as many English materials as possible. Through reading, students can assume themselves in the English-speaking country. They will be familiarized with the pure English. At last, students will have the language awareness.

For students, they can do the following measures. First of all, they should develop the habit of autonomous English learning. For instance, each student can sign a learner convention. They have to accomplish the requirements in the convention. Firstly, students will be asked to find out their deficiencies in oral English. Then, their English learning goals are indispensable. Secondly, students have to write the specific time and material which would be used to reach their goals based on the convention requirements. During the convention execution process, teacher may discuss or regularly inspect learner’s development of oral English learning.

4.2 Ensuring input goes before output

Krashen introduced various second language acquisition hypotheses. The input hypothesis influenced a lot in second language acquisition field compared with other hypotheses. According to Krashen’s input hypothesis, learners are required to be given target language materials which are slightly beyond their current language competence of their target language. Only in this circumstance, second language acquisition will occur. Learners understand such language cues in the situation. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally, and need not be taught directly. It is necessary for teachers to use the effective output way when paying close attention to input. Swain stated the comprehensive output hypothesis. It means that when a learner finds the gap in his target language knowledge, he will learn to revise his input language. Then the learner will learn new knowledge of the target language.

The teacher has the responsibility to create more chances for students to become used to the target language environment. The teacher could organize a two-hour English corner activity for students every week in daily teaching practice. Each student is required to take part in. The theme of the activity is different in each week. Teacher will occasionally choose several students as the representatives. Therefore, nearly most of the students should prepare necessary phrases or words related to the theme. Because of the full preparation, students will gain a sense of achievement. If some students don’t prepare well, they may be unable to say anything in the activity. In this circumstance, the teacher cannot push the student to take notice of the new opinion or phrases in their classmate’s utterances. As a result, not only the student can achieve the confidence, but also he will accumulate the beneficial vocabulary of oral English, which helps to lay down a foundation for future communication.

Besides communicative activities, we have to give each student an opportunity to actively output. Brown listed out six general guidelines to help teachers in English teaching classroom. Most importantly, the teacher should not push pressures on students to output. It is well-known that input goes before output. For this reason, comprehensive and qualitative input is essential.

4.3 Giving learner’s appropriate feedback

The interactional model which has been discussed in the third part required that conversational interaction such as cognitive or affective feedback determines whether the component of the learner’s interlanguage system could lead to fossilization. Learners who do receive error correction achieve greater accuracy in the production of some structures (Mukkatesh 18). The proper kind of feedback can help second language learners overcome fossilization (Graham 15).

For example, such measures are desirable in oral English classes. Psychological hint is one method. It means each student will be given an English name in the oral English class. Consequently, each student can assume themselves like native speakers. They were in English countries. Several students may think the cognitive feedback interesting. The other method is related to teacher’s feedback. Every student will be asked to actively join in the activities in the oral English class. Teacher has to give each student encouragement as well as criticism. Therefore positive affective feedback and negative cognitive feedback are applicable in class. For example, if the student answers the question correctly, the teacher can nod with a smile. However, if the student makes mistakes, the teacher can reply: “Are you sure? I will give you several minutes to think about the question again.” Then the student will realize his error. Then he will try to give a new answer.

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