论文总字数：35906字

摘 要

古往今来，人们崇拜英雄羡慕英雄并渴望成为英雄，英雄是人类永恒的话题，它的定义因时代,民族文化和个人的差异而不同。如今的世界是一个全球化的世界，由于通信及交通技术的空前发展，人与人之间的交流变的越来越频繁.于是对各种文化产生了传递及影响,而各种文化中的英雄形象最易于传播和接受。英雄主义，作为一种意识形态，同样也属于能够反映文化价值的艺术范畴。本文以两部小说的主人公为例，从中西方英雄主义的定义及其发展简介、中西方英雄的相似性、中西方英雄的差异性三个方面来分析中西方英雄主义观的差异，从而使人们更深的了解跨文化交际的意义。

关键词: 中西方英雄主义；差异； 跨文化交际

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 1

2.1 Definition of Oriental heroism and its development profile 2

2.2 Definition of Western heroism and its development profile 3

3. Heroic Similarities between Sun Wukong and Harry Potter 5

3.1 Similarity on origin 5

3.2 Similarity on experience 6

3.3 Similarity on yearn for freedom 7

4. Heroic Differences Between Sun Wukong and Harry Potter 9

4.1 Difference on image 9

4.2 Difference on emotional view 10

4.3 Difference on moral value 12

5. Conclusion 13

Works Cited…………………………………………………………………...15

1. Introduction

Each culture shapes its own unique hero. Essence of hero lies in works when the humanity face with each kind of irreversible consequences concerning the whole body of mankind. Hero produces positive struggling spirit and inspires ordinary people to have the courage to break through predicaments. Therefore, hero worship can only grow out of human society and always carry on from generation to generation in human society. This article will discuss the roots of Chinese and Western heroism culture to explain the reasons for the difference between Western heroism and Chinese heroism.The world popular fantasy novels Harry Potter series have been translated into many languages whose selling record hits nearly one hundred million, promoting another hot wave of myth novel once again in the world. Journey To The West written by Wu Chengen in Ming dynasty is also a representative masterpiece of the magical novels in ancient China. This novel told story of Sun Wukong’s growth and long-suffering pilgrimage to India to obtain Buddhist scriptures. There are a lot of similarities and differences between Harry Potter and Sun Wukong in the process of their characterization. Through the success of the comparison and analysis of representative works of Chinese and foreign God-evil novels, the paper manages to find the general form of the heroic image which will be good reference for the image of the protagonist in Chinese and Western literature in the future.

2. Literature Review

When the book Harry Potter was published, the Chinese and foreign scholars have studied it from several aspects, mainly focusing on translation comparison, exploration of mythology, religious belief and other aspects of the discussion. The studies of ancient Chinese work Journey To The West and the hero Sun Wukong are mainly concentrated on the shaping of myth and plot of the novel. This paper aims to make contrast between Chinese and foreign famous mythical heroes of the novels and analyze the similarities and differences in order to develop some new ideas for the future development of China’s mythical fantasy novels.

Based on a comparative study of two novels, this article will first discuss the heroism definitions and the development profile of East and West. Cultural background to better understand the differences between Chinese and Western heroism.

2.1 Definition of Oriental Heroism and Its Development Profile

In this part the author aims at introducing the oriental heroism from the following aspects: definition of oriental and development profile of oriental heroism.

2.1.1 Definition of oriental heroism

The definition of oriental heroism refers to the people who are not to be outdone. They don’t like ordinary life and work but like to practice some independent thinking regardless of the environment they are in. Once they establish some goals, they will keep working and stick to it.(Jame 245) Chinese heroism means to fulfill others and what heroes do also inspire other people to admire the valuable quality. As we all know the collectivism heroism which constantly evolves from human civilization grows out of human society. It gradually forms a kind of collective consciousness in the evolution of spiritual values which belongs to the ideological value judgment. With regard to a hero, he should be lofty, solemn, stirring, unyielding and enterprising in social groups. Such characteristics which can be taken as an example to transmit or communicate will promote a particular period of the social group. The hero has to be the one they are looking for, who is the most perfect, the noblest and most capable man who can mostly represent the overall interests of the group. The existence of hero is meaningful when he stands here to call on, encourage and motivate all the people in the society to imitate the valuable qualities in order to achieve ultimate goal of the cause of humanity.

2.1.2 Development profile of oriental heroism

Chinese heroic culture was born in times of chaos when Pan Gu opened the heaven and the earth and Kua Fu chased after the sun. The legend of the three sovereigns also should be contained in the heroic romance stories. In the subsequent years, we can find heroes from poetry to drama, from songs to novels. Great men from generations to generations became hero worship for ordinary people. In China, hero enforces justice on behalf of Heaven and rescues ordinary people out of water and fire. For example, Sun Wukong escorts Tang Xuanzang to go to the Western Paradise to learn from experienced people. Heroes in the novel All The Men Are Brothers revolt to kill the corrupt officials to enforce justice on behalf of Heaven. In Eastern and Western cultures people believe the hero fatalism. In East, the hero follows the moral standard strictly compared to the average men. Therefore capricious Sun Wukong cannot escape from Buddha’s control and must obey the discipline of Tang Xuanzang. Brave Wu Song, boorish Li Kui also must obey the leadership of Song Jiang. In Chinese traditional culture, the victor should be the king while the defeated is the bandit. In Chinese culture we never regard opponents as belittled and sarcastic ones. Anyone should not destroy their inspiring ambition. There is also the beginning of the Romance of Three Kingdoms of Cao Cao about the hero. Discarding the landscape just for a beautiful woman still is heroic behavior in Western culture. For instance, we all know Troy prince and Helen’s story. However the hero must encounter the heartless accusation in China for the same behavior. People are accustomed to let the beauty share responsibility. In long ancient times, the society keeps dominated by male. Majority of heroes in East and West are men, women are only men’s accessories.

2.2 Definition of Western Heroism and Its Development Profile

In this part the author aims at introducing the western heroism from the following aspects: definition of western and development profile of western heroism.

2.2.1 Definition of western heroism

According to the dictionary explanation, the definition of western heroism refers to the initiative which has the great significance to display heroic, tenacious and the self-sacrificing spirit and the behavior. (Searle 15) In many American movies, generally we can see western unique interpretation. From“Super-Man” in early time to the recent “Spider Man”, “Captain America”and so on, American hero tends to have an ability of extraordinary characters. They believe in the individual independence and freedom on the basis of different social ideologies, we call it the personal heroism. The individual heroism emphases on individual strength which neglects and even ignores the collective strength; it advocates the honor, courage, fighting qualities in the western literature in particular. American are prone to this.( Shao 11)

2.2.2 Development profile of western heroism

The western civilization origins from ancient Greece civilization. At that time there were frequent wars  in order to compete for the city-state and to make citizens in the city different from slavery. They worshiped the victory in the war. Greece rulers and thinkers constantly promoted the heroic consciousness from mind to body. They asked the young to have brave character and beauty of heart, not only in a work of art creating numerous transcendent God in Greek mythology, but also shaping in the Greek tragedy which had lofty spirit and great personality characters. From then on, the Greek heroes in western culture tend to have the superior innate ability to and basic ideas and values. Heroes have been made in all kinds of forms, for instance, Hercules, Achilles all born with different abilities from others. According to Homer’s epic tale, Homer believed that the hero was the descendant of God; they often acted as the role of a savior, having different experiences, when they grew up, some of them became  tragic heroes. The shape of these characteristics on hero view had great influence on the image of heroes in the future. The Greek myth of such hero’s characteristics with the change of time later has been further developed and changed. In the peaceful period of Greece, there isn’t any war. The spotlight began to transfer from the war to the daily life. The life, society and nature are all full of curiosity and desire to seek truth and knowledge. (Thompson 98)Under such atmosphere, Greece famous philosophers and scientists were born, covering Socrates, Aristotle, Plato who were representatives of this period. They didn’t like the hero with special power in ancient Greek myth; instead, they liked extraordinary intelligence and Renaissance. Their knowledge and talents were worshiped by people, even kings like Alexander who was regarded by them as a teacher. They pursued brainpower instead of manual, the rational instead of sensibility, and the new image of heroes was born.

3. Heroic Similarities between Sun Wukong and Harry Potter

In this part the author aims at introducing the similarities between Su Wukong and Harry Potter from the following aspects: similarity on origin; similarity on experience; similarity on yearn for freedom.

3.1 Similarity on origin

First of all, both in the East and the West hero novels, the hero mostly grows out of the ordinary people. Although they look as dull as ordinary people but they actually have remarkable background. Harry Potter is the first boy of Harry’s parents who died both in order to protect Harry’s mother managed to save Harry before her death, and she used the counter-curse Voldemort fire temporarily which was eliminated finally. Harry became an orphan from then on. When he lived in his aunt’s home, he was often bullied by his uncle, aunt and cousin. He had no room in the House, living in a dark closet; there were a lot of spiders in the room. And his appearance also did not have any strange places, he had messy hair, with a lot of scotch tape sticks together round glasses, smaller than their peers of an ordinary boy, no difference with general boy next door, even for mother and uncle, and cousin abuse recoiled. They won’t find that he has the potential to be a hero. But he is worldly known in the magic world. Participating in the first battle with Voldemort, he is the only surviving “the boy who lived”. (Rowling 112) Sun Wukong absorbed the livelihood essence in wonderful stone until a day to shake the world. Their images both have inherited the humanity by the apes and monkeys, the totemism which formed by the ancestors. In the Buddhist literature apes and monkeys are imitated after the images in literary reference. There is also a sentence in zaju of Yuan dynasty: “To listen after Ape” to steal the fine wine, to pick the immortal grass. Wu Chengen integrated the story in ancient and modern, Chinese and foreign, and created a heroic wit. (Wu 175)Sun Wukong appeared as an ordinary monkey, but he was conceived in the ten million gas collection and became a stone of heaven and earth, birth of“two beams of Golden injection punch Hopper House, alerting the high sky Santa Jade Wallace black dome high”(Wu 24). Hero with the special background in literary works not only seem to be mental mirrors of most people, the extraordinary background can also make the hero precocious, powerful, amazing, versatile, fortitude. Next, in the East and West literary works, heroes all have the experience whose youth are confronted with suffering; Voldemort killed Harry Potter’s parents and Harry Potter lost his parents at an early age; Sun Wukong was just born to be a stone monkey without father, without mother. And he didn’t know why. Harry Potter’s childhood was lack of family care. He lived in the oppression and humiliation environment where he grew up just like a slave that made Harry Potter too soon realized hardships of life. As soon as Sun Wukong was faced with the survival question, he must go outside faraway in the great distance for self-preservation. From the born of a hero to his understand of his responsibility on the shoulder, there were a lot of suffering stages which can be seen as a hero long journey session, so that a hero who has not yet been matured will have chance to hone. What’s more, the parents’ love may make the future hero desire for stability. It is destined to face challenges and dangers once someone want to become a hero. When he was young, parents will help a hero keep walking in the right way without emotional concerns and stumbles.

3.2 Similarity on experience

Historically speaking, both in Oriental culture and Western culture, a person to be a hero must experience suffering, and learn lessons from the poor to be mature. Harry Potter and Sun Wukong in the Journey to the West go through the road to uncover the dangerous and solve problems. But only after these hardships will  they highlight the precious scriptures. In the book Sun Wukong managed to protect the family and he was born to be the Monkey King. And then when big heaven pressed on the mountain he lived, he was released by Tang Xuanzang and then escorted Monk Tang to obtain book scriptures. What’s more, he had to bear suspicion of Monk Tang, obey discipline of Tang and suffer the pain of the body. The hardships let Sun Wukong undergo a lot from many aspects covering body, spirit and temper. The Monkey King had trouble everywhere when a monkey metamorphosis was made into the bucket inside by the Buddha. In Harry Potter, Harry Potter entered Hogwarts under harsh requirements continuously made by the teachers. The magic community media slander and distort things, Voldemort’s temptations and break have pressures and challenges which may cause mentally pain and made him confused. Facing this kind of difficulties, obstacles and challenges in a few years, Harry Potter was seemingly strengthened who has become the sword of flash and ready for Voldemort’s life and final death war. According to the theory they are all powerful demons and it is against the authorities in black evil forces. Thus, the hero gains ability through promotion after the pain in the change of present situation and achieved the general happy desire. Different heroes have different experiences, but they both have lived a hard tension and the life of hone and test. This is not only the need for survival but also a requirement of the hero character. In literary works, in this setting, the hero is often given immortal life through the toughness in life beyond their own shortcomings. The hero is the model which is likely to be fully respected and lead us to improve mental level.

3.3 Similarity on yearn for freedom

The pursuit of freedom of Sun Wukong is the most fundamental nature of life from the beginning. He was born naturally without father and mother.  From the very beginning he had spiritually surmounted the ancestor legal system and all sorts of limitations and restraint of the society to humans. Sun Wukong’s pursuit of liberty was obvious, because he did not want to obey the Emperor’s control and lose free life. But he was controlled by Tathagata Buddha under five lines of mountains. Sun Wukong managed to pursue freedom while the jade emperor tried to maintain the tyranny and oppression. Both were deeply rooted in the reality of class interests which formed the fundamental political conflict of interest. Sun Wukong made great efforts to escape through struggles. In the eyes of theocratic rulers led by Emperor, Sun Wukong with this kind of character forever threatened the theocracy rule order which had influence on dissidents, bosses around practice the execution politics, but also guarded against him not to be obedient frequently. Sun Wukong accepted the idle position given by the emperor but had nothing to do in the sky, feeling freely, busy to play with friends, making friends, and wandering around. However, the Monkey King just had a little of freedom which also can’t be tolerated by the emperor. Soon after, through discussion they made him a peach guard to limit the actions pulling him into the Jade Emperor’s slave. Sun Wukong felt cheated. Until the Peach Festival he had not been invited to, Sun Wukong understood what they had done. So he angrily stole liquor and elixir, havoc again to fight in struggle for freedom. However, the real powerful class handled the result in joint of Buddha. he was heavily stressed under the marble mountains and completely lost his freedom. Five hundred years later, he again made humiliation compromise, he was ordained, and converted to Buddhism. Although these plots are obviously influenced by traditional stories, Wu Chengen’s history has injected new content. He reproduced the image of Sun Wukong, reflecting the class characteristics of the forces emerging civil society. In their struggle for freedom, they had the feudal progress requirements, and at the same time show a sort of politically naive. Harry Potter also had the similar experience to obtain his own freedom. He left uncle’s home choosing to go to a special magic and witchcraft boarding school at Hogwarts. In the fight against Voldemort, Harry Potter courageously faced the evil of battle. Finally, Harry Potter didn’t choose to escape, but optimistically faced the reality in opposite. Harry Potter was brave what can be realized in the fight. When Harry Potter was willing to see his parents in the distress Reese mirror, immerse in illusion world time, Dumbledore reminded him of things: “The human cannot live in the dreams,do not have dream just because of vain hope for forgetting lives”. When Harry Potter went to Voldemort ,he felt they had many similarities that made him confused. Dumbledore, explained to him and convinced him again: “be determined to be what kind of person is not our ability, but our choice”. (Rowling 245)When the power of the Demeanors was everywhere and when Harry Potter’s response to Dementors was strong, Dumbledore told him: “we can still have some fun, although it is in such a dark period, as long as we lit the lamp, the light will reappear”; “What do you most fear is fear itself, as long as we overcome the fear, everything will work out in the end”. Because Harry Potter did not have parents’ accompany since childhood and loving concern, he felt inferior alone. The small Sirius consoled him: “You must remember that, all sincere people like us are in our side, they forever can accompany you, in your heart you”. Like this, in elder’s loving care, in friends’ supporting help, though studies in school, in facing the difficulties and challenges unceasingly of enterprises, Harry Potter gradually grew up from the individuality characteristic spiritless neighbor young boy to a bright young hero who defeated the evil mission.

4. Heroic Differences between Sun Wukong and Harry Potter

In this part the author aims at introducing the differences between Su Wukong and Harry Potter from the following aspects: difference on image; difference on emotional view; difference on moral values.

4.1 Difference on image

The Chinese myth was produced in earlier time than the Greek mythology. In ancient times, people struggled with nature, under the influence of totem. They were destined to be mythological animal with the body of the hero. Therefore, in China ancient times there was a saying that “half human of half beast” in the myth, because heroes nearly were all fierce in appearance, just like Lady Waa and Fu Xi were “the human surface snake body”, emperor of Yan Shen Nong shim were “the person cow head”, especially “person cow hooves”and so on. China’s God also has changed from male to female, from the tendency of half human and half beast to the perfect person. From this aspect, we can see that the heroic image in the Chinese myth fable seems to be ugly. However, they had the spirit of dedication, tenaciousness, unyielding will. So beautiful hearts make strong contrast with ugly appearance which had a more profound connotation of the inner and should be better than an elegant and beautiful appearance. The ugly image in ancient Chinese fables revealed the purest aesthetic consciousness and aesthetic ideas of primitive human and nature. The spirit of the noble quality was highly regarded as important things in the Chinese culture. Sun Wukong, a stone monkey, was the natural product stone monkey who was born in the fruit and flowers scenery curtain hole. This was a celestial mountain, but there was a stone on the mountain which also absorbs livelihood essence to breed itself. It had a divine and wonderful spirit. One day the stone split suddenly, produced pebble and the sphere looked like relatively big. Because of the wind, it turned into a stone monkey with facial features and complete limbs. When he was just born he can crawl an walk. Stone Monkey was born with the unique eyes. In view of this, Sun Wukong had neither human parents, nor monkey parents, he was the world essence, and he was the world’s only Fetish. Comparatively, Greek’s unique aesthetic idea made they mold the God according to human’s image, calms oneself down the personality definitely by human’s disposition. From the appearance of heroes, the Greek God not only had the beauty of the human body and strong, handsome appearance, but also enabled the God to become the idol which people prostrate oneself, meanwhile had surpassed the mortal intelligent and the strength. China’s myth fables were created by ethics standard, but the West broke through the god fetter, emphatically in human nature. They brought much more honor to the humanism spirit. In the western society and the literary work, outstanding characters with family background is mostly ordinary. Austria Puma family background in stock hybrid family; Cinderella received stepmother’s maltreatment since childhood; Jane Eyre was an orphan girl, who received the hell tempering. In the J.K.Rowling in the series work molded one in Harry Potter to look but resembled the unreal black magic world besides the impossible man power and the black magic. She publicized the humanities of good and evil which was unexpectedly interlinked with the real world.

4.2 Difference on emotional view

Unearthly human emotions were the main deity in ancient China myth. They were important characteristics of the Gods. The private life of the individual, who would always rule and behave you, placed great emphasis on sections, focusing on the cultivation of character and virtue when people looked to them. In Chinese hero cultures women were blamed, scorned objects, what men did mistakenly was always imposed on women who couldn’t decide their own fate. In this book, women can be divided into three types: the fairy, banshee and secular women. Book at first appearance with the hand-woven cloth, the goddess of the moon, the goddess of the mercy of women almost were negligible, only existed as a tool for promoting the development of the plot. In Journey to the west, the female did not have the independent existence value nearly, only to make the hero realize self-surmounting. The kill of females make Sun Wukong matured. Although Sun Wukong also made rebellion against authority, there was still the conflict between good and evil. Sun Wukong was a super fighter and all creatures appeared in his eyes were only the demon and the non-demon, good and bad ones. There was distinctive between them. As a hero, he must have a strong sense of justice and truth, but not let a person feel the lack of some experience; after all, he was a man of God. In ancient Greece mythology, we regard every large or small deity as a common custom which was smoke and fire taste image in the whole body world. Gods and human were different in strength but similar in the emotion. In the western hero, culture is filled with feminine praising. Harry Potter also embodied the point. In the novel, the female was the most outstanding one of the best partner for Harry. She was the most brightest and the most excellent student in Hogwarts, they named her Encyclopedia. There was almost no knowledge she didn’t know. Not only that, she also was heroic with fortitude. When adventuring with Harry Potter many times. She helped Harry find the secret of the chamber. In this novel, the female have been advocated. It is not only a subject of praise, but they have been able to stand in the position of the peer with men. Now many young people seem to be like Harry Potter, it is because he is a good person. Harry Potter has his own parents, relatives and friends, has a normal childhood experiences of growing up, and the characteristics of normal children. (Colbert 176)These all explains that, Harry Potter is one who has the magic power, just because of similar changes with the humanity which is accepted universally. Humanity’s history seems to be the history of endless resistance with each kind of danger. In this process, each survival and the development opportunity which the humanity obtains, each small progress that the humanity gained all grows out of suffering distress, the sacrifice and the blood. This painful experience created the splendid resistance of humanity in history. In the resistance process, people will certainly undertake this misery and the specific victim with responsibility, but these victims will certainly to withstand poverty-stricken and dangerous inform and experience, and in these inform and experience the mind moves towards to maturity. As a result, the hero is the common existence of human history, however, because of the difference of eastern and western culture of human history development trend, the hero’s intrinsic also has differences.

4.3 Difference on moral values

There is obvious difference between Chinese and Western social life which support and maintain the values of the social structure. Ruler in ancient China created etiquette and music to govern the country, to unite the people and to maintain social order. So Chinese myths and legends reflected obvious moral value, the national spirit has an obvious tendency of ethics.( Xia 3) In the 70th chapter, Sun Wukong changes the body to steal the monster’s purple golden bell, because they use treasure improperly. Later he was punished for theft which embodies the spirit of Chinese culture in the character. So, in China, no matter what purpose you have, as long as people confirm it is theft behavior that will be condemned. Chinese society emphasizes character since time immemorial. The mainstream of Western culture in the period of capitalism encourage personal utility, which emphasized individualism and highly personal will. Harry Potter and his friends have also used some means to achieve their objectives. In Harry Potter and The Philosopher’s Stone, Harry and Ron missed the train  to get back to Arts Academy, they broke the rules, driving Ron’s father’s flying car. Upon arrival at the school, they should be punished, but principal forgave them. From a certain perspective, this was a fraud behavior, but they were useless and therefore subject to any punishment. This is the cultural difference between China and West, Western myths and ethic differences give us new perspectives to look at cultural differences between China and the West. In Chinese mythology, the hero was often the embodiment of virtue, dedication, and righteousness. The Chinese stressed that individuals should be subject to the overall, pay attention to the responsibility of Chinese mythology, praised the dedication. The hero was charged with maintaining order in the universe and the lofty responsibility of social stability. Hero’s behavior is a matter of national collectivism. They shoulder the national responsibility which is a model of social morality, living up to the highest ethical standards. They all pay attention to duty mission and the moral ethics of intellectual chastity. Virtue first shows a selfless sacrifice. But in the Greek mythology fable, god and the hero mostly are selfish. They advocate the risk, the performance, which has the strong individual will and the free independent national special characteristic. They even pay more attention to the self-desire for the realization. In the most cases, being jealous and holding individual will occupies the dominant position which decides its behavior manner. Therefore, pursuit of the self-value, the satisfactory individuality and freedom develop into their highest ideal boundary.

5. Conclusion

The generation and evolution of the hero concept as a cultural phenomenon has profound historical and cultural background. With the evolution of human civilization, the hero as a combination of man and God, the divinity of the body decreases and human nature has been demonstrated. As two different cultures, differences in Western concepts of heroism reflect the cultural characteristics of their heroism have a long history in human history; it has actually become a cultural phenomenon that reflects the basic ideologies between East and West. The hero of Chinese culture and Western culture is very different. As Chen Duxiu said: “Western nation takes war cardinal principle while Oriental nation takes peace cardinal principle”. “Western nation takes the individual-oriented, Oriental ethnic takes the family-oriented”. Hero in Chinese history focuses on the guarded territory, maintenance of imperial power and Western history focuses on the character of the hero, creating history. But the hero’s idea of the two have in common is firstly built when people can follow the example. That is period of history that people worship and follow objects. Such as Pan Gu created China’s heaven, Quafoo chasing after the sun, the legend of emperor sovereigns have the colors of heroism. In Western, heroes are always on the opposite of God’s will, such as the ancient Greek mythology, Prometheus stole fire, they couldn’t get away from fate; Oedipus killed his father and married his mother, and so on. Therefore, in the cross-cultural field, study of heroism is necessary. Journey to the west and Harry Potter are two representative works of magic myth in East and West. Shaping of the images of two different heroes Sun Wukong and Harry Potter also reflects the Chinese and western different cultural values. In the Chinese culture, under the influence of God, the hero is a model of moral ability who has the characteristics of God, different from ordinary people from birth. In the process of promotion they don’t think the bun eventually will return to the orthodox Confucian thought. Under the West humanism culture influence, the hero comes from the grassroots civilians. The growth process of heroes is weak and also persevering person’s contradictory conflict which has the confusion. When the challenge comes, consciousness of hero awakened eventually returns to normal. All in all, different national hero values from different sides reflect the evolution of civilization in the process of people’s ideals and desires. Being aware of the different cultural values in the global cultural world today is helpful for communication between different cultures.

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