论文总字数：28600字

摘 要

在日常教学过程中，作文往往是一个大问题。当外语水平提高到一定程度时，绝大多数英语学习者都会陷入停滞甚至倒退的状态，这极大地制约了学生的写作能力。这就是为什么国内外的研究人员一直致力于研究此问题的原因。本文首先对石化的概念进行了概述。然后运用中介语理论，主要从三个方面对写作中的石化现象进行分析:词汇石化;语法;文化背景。然后，结合已有的研究成果，分析了石化的成因。最后，提出了一系列切实可行的措施来缓解或解决学生在未来英语写作过程中遇到的问题。

关键词：中介语；石化；英语写作

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 1

2.1 The definition of fossilization and interlanguage............................................2

2.2 Previous studies on fossilization.....................................................................2

3.Analysis of Fossilization in Writing 3

3.1 Fossilization in words 3

3.2 Fossilization in grammar 4

3.3 Fossilization in expression 6

4.Causes of Fossilization 6

4.1 Negative transfer of mother language 7

4.2 Low learning motivation 7

4.3 Improper learning strategies 8

4.4 Little knowledge of cultural background 8

4.5 Ineffective feedback to errors 9

5. Strategies to Fossilization 9

5.1 Enhancing the learning of English cultural background knowledge..............10

5.2 Arousing students’ motivation.......................................................................10

5.3 Stressing the feedback...................................................................................10

5.4Promoting communication among students...................................................11

5.5Carrying out writing training..........................................................................11

6. Conclusion 11

Works Cited 13

1. Introduction

What is fossilization? Many linguists have studied this, but the first person to give a specific explanation is the American linguist Selinker. Over the years, he has come up with different definitions of fossilization. After several modifications, he finally defined fossilization as a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. (Selinker, 221)

Nowadays, more and more attention has been paid to the fossilization in second language acquisition. We can see students often make some mistakes that have been told many times in the process of writing, so it is quite necessary to find the causes of fossilization and know how to avoid it. This thesis will first introduce the definition of fossilization and related research, show how fossilization exists in words, grammar, culture back ground and other aspects of writing. Then according to the theories of interlanguage and other existing materials, come up with some reasons of fossilization in writing. Finally, list some feasible measures to solve or alleviate fossilization for improving English writing proficiency.

1. Literature Review

2.1 The definition of fossilization and interlanguage

Fossilization, the word was first proposed by American linguist Selinker in his Interlanguage in 1972 (Selinker 209). Over the past years, it has sparked heated debate among people. Langman Dictionary of language teaching and Applied Linguistics defines it as “a process( in second and foreign language teaching) occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language(Selinker 221 )”. And Selinker redefined the fossilization in 1992. He argued that fossilization of language refers to “ the tendency and fixed state of some interlanguage items, grammatical rules and systematic knowledge of foreign language learners. The change of age and amount of learning does not play a role in changing this fixed state(Selinker 215 )”.

Interlanguage refers to a dynamic language system formed by learners on the basis of the input of the target language through certain learning strategies in the process of second language acquisition, which is different from either the mother language or the target language and transits gradually with the progress of learning(Selinker 209-231). Selinker classifies the causes of interlanguage formation into five aspects: “ language transfer; transfer of training; strategies of second language learning; strategies of second language communication; over-generalization of target language”(Selinker 209-231).

2.2 Previous studies on fossilization

Both domestic and foreign scholars have done a lot of researches on the fossilization. However, due to different research perspectives and cultural differences, the results are often different. Foreign researchers tend to explore the causes of fossilization in theory. For example, Selinker illuminates fossilization from the perspective of his own Interlanguage theory(Selinker 1969). Krashen(1982) examines fossilization from the cognitive process of second language acquisition. He believes that cultural adaptation is the main cause of fossilization in Interlanguage. Ellis tries to explain the causes of fossilization from the perspective of the feedback learner’s receive on target language learning. He divides the causes into internal and external factors. Internal factors include learners age and desire to integrate into target culture. External factors include learner’s communicative pressure, lack of learning opportunities and learner’s feedback characteristics after using second language(Ellis 351).

Although domestic research started late and no in-depth study, it also made some achievements. Han Zhaohong(Han 2006) summed up the causes of about 50 Fossilization Phenomena in four categories: environment, cognition, nerve, biology and social emotion. Dai Weidong and Niu Qiang put forward three conjectures in the light of China"s national conditions: “mother tongue interference and transfer; affective factors; teachers and textbooks”(Dai 1999). Zhang Hui made a summary of phonetic fossilization. Yang Jin Qiu specializes in fossilization of vocabulary(Yang 2007). They all contributed to the study of fossilization.

3.Analysis of Fossilization in Writing

English writing can reflect one’s language proficiency to a certain extent. Therefore, it is necessary to know about the fossilization in writing. According to several surveys, we can conclude that the influence of fossilization of interlanguage on English writing is mainly manifested in words, grammar, cultural background differences and etc.

3.1 Fossilization in words

As is known to all, words are the main element of a composition. and the first step in writing a good article is to use every word accurately. “Accurately” here is not only spelling words correctly, but also appropriate. Judging from the information that I have collected, The fossilization of words is often reflected in misuse of parts of speech , errors in word meaning, colloquialization of writing words .

3.1.1 Misuse of parts of speech

The misuse of parts of speech can be a problem for some junior students. Many learners only remember the explanations but neglect the part of speech given while memorizing the words. In the wrong sentence “ According to scientific investigation, eating more fruits contributes to good healthy”, the word “ healthy” should be corrected to “health”, because adjectives are usually followed by nouns. Although it sounds easy, the reality is that many students make the same vocabulary mistakes in their writing after teachers correct them several times.

3.1.2 Errors in word meaning

Sometimes we distinguish the parts of speech, but may not understand or differentiate the meanings, which is also an important manifestation arose form fossilization. Take two words as an example, “vigorous” and “rigorous”. The word “vigorous” means “energetic” or “strong and healthy”. While the word “vigorous” means “strict”or “do something with a lot of attention to detail”. Some of my classmates have ever complained the two words to me, because “vigorous” and “rigorous” are so similar. Even though I’ve explain the differences many times, they made the same mistakes as before. Other cases can be shown, for example, “trail, trial”; “blond, bland”; “aboard, abroad” and so on. The phrase “economical growth” can be listed as another typical paradigm of errors of meaning in writing. Here “economical” should be corrected to “economic”. Although both words are adjectives, their meanings are quite different. The former word means “not spending more money than necessary”. The latter word means “connected with the trade industry and development of wealth of a country , an area or a society” (Oxford Advances Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary Sixth edition 541). It is the delicate differences that lead learners to make frequent mistakes.

3.1.3 Colloquialization of writing words

A large number of students tend to write words or phrases with their oral habits in the exam. Typical colloquial words such as "a piece of cake" are often found in compositions. In addition, the students tended to use the frequently used words instead of the new words they had been exposed to. In the long run, the ability to use vocabulary will remain stagnate, and it is difficult to change. We should pay enough attention to this issue.

3.2 Fossilization in grammar

We have to acknowledge that Chinese grammar systems are not the same with that of English. The former tends to focus on fluency rather than accuracy and there is no strictly morphological change, while the latter usually attach more importance to consistency in person and number or other aspect. Therefore, Chinese students are prone to make nearly all kinds of grammatical mistakes listed as follows.

3.2.1 The neglect of principle of Subject-Verb Concord

The neglect of the principle of Subject-Verb Concord can be said to be one of the most common grammatical mistakes made by second language learners. It is not difficult to find the following errors in their articles：

(1) A woman with two children are walking along the street at the moment.(a)

(2) Swimming in the pool with friends are very interesting.(are-is)

(3) Forty years are not a long time.(are-is)

3.2.2 Non-finite verb errors

Non-predicate verbs refer to verbs that are not predicates in a sentence, mainly including infinitives, gerunds and participles. If properly used in the composition exam, the article can be more brilliant. But actually, a lot of students make mistakes here.

1. I have some records giving to me as birthday gifts.(giving-given)
2. Play basketball not only makes us grow up tall but also gives us a sense of pleasure (play-playing)
3. Guiding by a belief that computers would be valuable tools on every office desktop and in every home, Bill Gates began developing software for personal computers.(Guiding-Guided)

3.2.3 The misuse of conjunctions

Conjunction is a kind of function word, which can not act as a sentence component independently but only plays the role of connecting.

(1)How an interesting story he told us.(How-What)

(2)I will make friends with no matter who shares my interest.(no matter who-whoever)

(3)Lily has never been to China and England.(and-or)

3.2.4 Incorrect use of articles

The article itself cannot be used independently, and can only be put together with the noun to help explain the person or thing the noun refers to. Mistakes in articles often appears in this form:

(1) Pollution is a biggest problem of city.(a-the)

(2) The sun rises in east.(add “the” )

(3) She was playing piano.(add “the”)

3.2.5 Tense errors

The tense of a sentence is the time when something happens. However, students often use the wrong tense in their compositions.

(1) I see my teacher in the park yesterday. (see-saw)

(2) He plays basketball with his friends tomorrow.(plays-play)

(3) I forget to bring your pens here.(forget-forgot)

3.3 Fossilization in expression

There is no doubt that the one of the biggest problem in our writing is “Chinglish”. It refers to the abnormal English which is not in conformity with the norms or cultural habits of English in English communication because of the interference and influence of mother tongue by Chinese learners and users. This kind of English is easy for people to understand, but it is not formal at all. Chinese as our mother tongue has a far-reaching impact on us. In some cases, we can even find such ridiculous phrases in students’ writing: big rain; buy the bill; good good study, day day up...so it is often inappropriate to translate Chinese directly into English for collocation.

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