论文总字数：43387字

摘 要

电影是传递意识形态的工具。好莱坞电影在传递意识形态方面发挥着重要作用。而好莱坞电影中的中国人形象能帮助世界更好地了解中国。近年来，相关的研究虽然不少，但多数只局限于某一特定的时期或某一特色群体，因而无法准确客观全面地反映好莱坞电影中不同时期的中国人形象，也难以揭示其变迁的原因。因此，本文根据萨义德的东方主义理论体系，从意识形态角度出发，旨在系统分析不同历史阶段好莱坞电影中中国人形象的变迁特点及其原因。结果发现从时间顺序上从19世纪末至今的好莱坞电影中的中国人形象经历如下变化：异国情调，想象中的中国，积极同盟国，红祸，争议化英雄化及正面多样化。另一方面，从中美关系角度对其变迁因素予以分析，寻求对策以期树立良好的中国形象。

关键词：好莱坞电影；中国人形象；变迁；意识形态

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 2

3. Chinese Images in Hollywood Movies from the end of the 19^th Century to the Present 3

3.1 Exotic: before 1908 3

3.2 Legendary: 1910s-1937 4

3.3 Positive Ally: 1937-1949 6

3.4 Red Menace: 1949-1972 7

3.5 Controversial and Heroic: 1972-1999 9

3.6 Positive and Diversified: 1999-2013 10

4. Factors Contributing to the Evolution 12

5. Conclusion 15

Works Cited 18

1. Introduction

In ancient times, countries are isolated from each other until Columbus find the new continent. And the movie industry is a true window for people to know about China and the world, especially about Chinese images in Hollywood movies. However, due to lack of understanding, communication, and under the influence of the Western “Yellow Peril” opinion, the Chinese images in early Hollywood movies were always demonized, as represented by stereotypical images such as Fu Manchu and Charlie Chan. With the development of economy, politics and cultural communication, Chinese images in Hollywood tend to be neutral and positive such as Jackie Chan in Rush Hour. Nevertheless, some ideologies remain to be unchanged such as“China Threat Theory”, which are not beneficial to the long-term Sino-US relationship.

This thesis analyzes the evolution of Chinese images from the point of ideology. And ideology is a set of conscious and unconscious ideas that constitute one’s goals, expectations and actions, and also a way of looking at things in several philosophical tendencies. The essay will be analyzed from the perspective of Edward W. Said’s Orientalism. This research vows to help Chinese learn about the tendency towards and the factors that contribute to the evolution of Chinese images in Hollywood movies, thus taking measures to help establish a good Chinese image.

After the introduction part, literature review will talk about theoretical basis, the importance of Orientalism in studying Chinese images in Hollywood movies, previous studies about Chinese images and problems remaining to be solved. Then, an analysis of the evolution of Chinese images in Hollywood movies will be presented. After-words, factors that contribute to this tendency will be illustrated. At last, the overall evolution of Chinese images in Hollywood will be summarized. And suggestions to help establish a good Chinese image will be put forward.

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2. Literature Review

Edward W. Said’s Orientalism treats western and eastern culture differently and neglects the association between the two cultures. And the concept that the west is superior while the east is inferior is widely accepted, which indicates cultural hegemony and power politics. Therefore, Orientalism regards the orient as a way for the occident to control, rebuild the orient (Said, 1999: 8).

Generally speaking, the orient created by the west is definitely not objective. It is somewhat orientalized by the west. Orientalism means the imposition of western value system on the orient in the western imagination. The west is rational and logical while the orient is on the contrary. The orient is the substitute for western power and desire. Therefore, in face of western cultural hegemony, the orient is in a state of aphasia and expressed by others. As a result, Chinese images in Hollywood movies are distorted to some degree. Since the study of orientalism has an obvious tendency towards the analysis of ideology and criticism of power and it studies the “exotic other” created by western discourse and the imaginary lie created by the west, Orientalism is a good entry point to explain western power relations against orient under Orientalism discourse system by means of analyzing the evolution of Chinese images in Hollywood movies from the perspective of ideology.

At present, many domestic scholars analyze different Chinese images in Hollywood movies. Two kinds of critiques are often employed, namely, journalistic appraisement and academic critics. And most of the studies about Chinese images are limited to specific periods in Chinese history and specific groups in Hollywood movies. For instance, The Other Looks: Interrogating Chineseness in Hollywood Cinema 1980~1999 by Li Yufeng discusses about Chinese images, discourse mechanism behind the scene and his questions about culture during this period from the perspective of the post colonialism. And The Image of The Other: Chinese Women in Hollywood Films by Sun Meng explores the features of the evolution of Chinese female images and their relationships with the time, culture, environment and history by analyzing Chinese female images from the end of the 19^th century.

With the development of Sino-US relationship, Chinese images in Hollywood movies are not always unchangeable. They have gone through changes over centuries. Thus they are not limited to specific periods in Chinese history or specific groups in Hollywood movies.

However, systematic analysis of Chinese images from the end of the 19^th century to the present is deficient, especially from the perspective of ideology in the light of Said’s Orientalism. As an important category of art and part of superstructure, movie reflects the ideology of the ruling class. Thereafter, movie bears the burden of propagating and reproducing ideology and social form imperceptibly. And movie is a national ideological machine, which helps express ideology coyly through light and sound. Then audience accepts the ideology subtly.

Consequently, this paper provides an overall picture of Chinese images in Hollywood movies and discusses about the evolution of Chinese images in the chronological order from the end of the 19^th century to the present. And this essay explains western power relations against orient under Orientalism discourse system, thus helping explore and summarize changes of ideology between the two countries.

3. Chinese Images in Hollywood Movies from the end of the 19^th Century to the Present

3.1 Exotic: before 1908

In early times, Chinatown is a relatively independent and closed body. Chinese seldom communicate with the outside, which strengthens the curiosity of the west. Therefore, Chinese images in Hollywood movies are mainly described as exotic.

3.1.1 Male Images

The Chinese images in Hollywood movies can be traced back to the end of the 19^th century. In 1895, a film named Chinese Laundry: at work was released, telling the story of a Chinese chased by an Ireland policeman. In the film, the local Chinese laundrymen’s lives are described, which, to a great extent, leaves deep impressions on Americans and also mislead them. Under the influence of the film, Chinese are considered fool and numb. During this period, lives of Chinese are vividly depicted as poor, chaotic and feudal in motion pictures. Another well-known movie is The Heathen Chinese and the Sunday School Teachers (1904). In the film, the Chinese starred by a white man becomes the stereotype of Chinese. There are three kinds of stereotypes of Chinese at that time in Hollywood movies: 1. Chinese that are related to opium, indicating inferiority, 2. Chinese who are considered as symbols of danger in Americans’ imagination, 3. Chinese who are pagans, whose souls are dirty and evil. Chinese inferior images are exaggerated in Americans’ imagination. And the motion picture, as an increasing mature form of art, helps the wide acceptance of the stereotypical images of China. Images in the motion pictures are often nameless and marginalized to display the America-centered culture.

3.2 Legendary: 1910s-1937

During this period, Chinese images created in Hollywood movies are mostly based on the Western imagination and influenced by “Yellow Peril” theory. “Yellow Peril” is a series of terror, be it true or false. Its threat to the west lies in the large flux of constant cheap Chinese labor, the dissemination of Buddhism to the west and China’s efforts to struggle for political and economical freedom with other countries.

3.2.1 Male Images

The most typical representative image of “Yellow Peril” is Sax Rohmer’s fictional character Fu Manchu. Series such as The Mysterious Dr. Fu Manchu (1929), The Return of Dr. Fu Manchu (1930) and The Mask of Fu Manchu (1932) demonize Chinese. The character of Fu Manchu becomes a stereotype associated with the “Yellow Peril”. He has inspired numerous other characters, and is the model for most villains in later “Yellow Peril” thrillers such as General Yen in The Bitter Tea of General Yen (1933).

The “Yellow Orientals” refers to the invincible evil people who loot and kill, with completely foreign lifestyle, inhuman courage and endurance. Said says, “The orient presented in works about the east in different times is not the objective or the real reproduction in history. Instead, it’s the Western cultural conception. It’s ‘the other’ constructed by the West to confirm themselves” (Said, 2003: 21). For instance, Fu Manchu is the one produced by the West as a potential oriental enemy to confirm and consolidate the Western value system. Although he is cruel, evil and powerful, he is always defeated by “normal” white men. Furthermore, the image of Fu Manchu is feminine, which reflects the value of white-centered society.

As Gordon W. Allport says, “Stereotyping is reflective, and it reflects the shaper rather than the character stereotyped” (Jiang Zhiqin, 2007: 72). The image of Fu Manchu is a kind of Orientalism in accordance with the Western need. The distorted image like Satan conforms to Americans’ social memory. And it is mysterious and exotic in appearance, culture, ethnics and religion, which differs from that of the west. As Marchetti mentioned, in white American’s conception of the east, the “Yellow Peril” stereotype is deeply rooted. The “Yellow Peril” combines racist terror of alien cultures, sexual anxieties, and the belief that the west will be overpowered and enveloped by the irresistible, dark, occult forces of the east (Marhetti, 1993: 123).

Therefore, Chinese images in Hollywood movies at this time are mostly fabricated by imagination. Accompanied by Fu Manchu, there is a positive image named Charlie Chan. With the release of films like The House without a Key (1926), Chinese images are portrayed positive as clever, fair and honest. The series of Charlie Chan is the representative of Hollywood’s positive attitude towards Chinese in the 1930s (Zhou Guanwu, 1999: 4). However, the character of Charlie Chan is a clown lacking masculinity, which, to some degree, caters to the Western need and their self-centered value. A rational, orderly, free, democratic, prosperous, progressive and noble west is built on the condition that an irrational, ignorant, chaotic, corrupted, poor and backward east is built (Zhou Ning, 2004: 118).

3.2.2 Female Images

Chinese female images show a strong tendency towards Orientalism. Not only are they inferior but they are seductive as well. Film producers always describe Chinese female images as China dolls, prostitutes and sirens that are strange, mysterious and kind. However, their kindness indicates their obedience. For example, in the film The Toll of the Sea (1992), a Chinese girl saves an American boy and falls in love with him. After giving birth to a son and finding that the man has a wife, the girl was abandoned by the man and throws herself into the sea. Similar plots can be found in different movies. Generally speaking, Chinese women are labeled as “true gentleness” and“virgin” by obedience. Otherwise, they are evil, pornographic and insidious such as Princess Lin in the film The Daughter of the Dragon (1931).

The most typical character is the prostitute in The Chinese parrot (1928) starred by Anna May Wong. These female images always pin their destiny to white men and wait for salvage. They are the objects for observation. In her book Visual Pleasure and Narrative film, Laura Mulvey points out, “The basic principle of mainstream business films and narration is that women are to be observed by men. It is based on a binary system of men/women, observe/ observed, initiative/ passive and subject/object” (Dai Jinhua, 2007: 144). Romantic stories between Chinese women and white men reflect western ideology. In essence, stereotypical Chinese images, fixed relationships between characters are reflection of the relationship between the two countries. Chinese female images are shaped as oriental wonder, in accordance with the psychological need of western audience. They are the objects of desire. Their bodies are stared at as objects. They are objective bodies only to be measured by appearance (Tao Dongfeng, 2004: 282).

Consequently, Chinese images at this time are fabricated by the west as legendary under the western discourse system.

3.3Positive Ally: 1937-1949

World War II changes the Sino-US relationship, and Chinese images in Hollywood movies are positive, as in The Dragon Seed (1944) and The Good Earth (1937). Due to the efforts done by Hollywood movie group, the good qualities like diligence and persistence leave deep impressions on Americans’ minds.

3.3.1 Male Images

In 1937, a film named The Good Earth adapted from Pearl S. Buck’s novel achieves great success. Harold Robert Isaacs once said, “The influence of other books about China can not compare with that of The Good Earth. Buck creates Chinese for the whole generation” (Isaacs, 2006: 177). In the film, the character Wang Long is a diligent, optimistic, industrial farmer though he is poor. Faced with drought and war, Wang Long works hard and never gives up. Although there are ups and downs, he finally succeeds and becomes rich through diligence, perseverance and hard work. From him, Americans see the quality possessed by Chinese in Anti-Japanese War. And they are in favor of Wang Long’s deep love for the earth and his persistence.

The Good Earth is an important and serious try of Hollywood by employing the method of realism instead of telling the story of China by absurd, mysterious, and fictional characters. The greatest influence of The Good Earth lies in its changing the stereotypical portrayal. It makes Chinese similar to other people who survive and experience life on the earth. However, the film also cultivates Americans’ awareness that China is in great poverty. To them, Chinese need protection and help, which lead them to regard themselves as saviors. Professor Zhang Yingjin says, “The description of disasters and poverty in the film The Good Earth may result in a sense of superiority in American audience: America has stepped into modernization while China is still in abject poverty” (Zhang Yingjin, 2006: 71). But the efforts to restore an authentic China deserve recognition. Therefore, during this period, persevere Chinese and soldiers in Hollywood movies are more like close allies rather than enigmatic spectacular aliens.

3.3.2 Female Images

Lady from Chungking (1942) presents a positive female image. During anti-Japanese War, in Japanese-occupied China, Madam Kwan Mei is the leader of a resistance organization in a rural village. When two American airmen are shot down near the village and are caught by Japanese, she decides to rescue them. Thereafter, when Japanese General Kaimura arrives in the village, she impersonates an aristocrat in order to win the general’s trust and know his plan. Taking advantage of this opportunity, she saves the American pilots but is killed by Japanese. The female images created by American film producers are mostly positive, which reflects Americans’ appreciation for Chinese people’s contribution to World War II. Chinese people’s bravery and good qualities are described here.

3.4 Red Menace: 1949-1972

The so-called “Red Menace” refers to fear and resistance owned by citizens of western capitalism against communism. Upon the founding of People’s Republic of China, “Red China” or “Communist China” becomes an image of enemy in American culture. Americans’ fear against China is beyond words, “600 million people, with the same head, pace and clothes, do the same things. Once they have a crazy idea····It will be an unimaginable monster” (Zhou Ning, 1999: 161). Films like The Bamboo Prison (1954) named “communism” explicitly as the new enemy (Zhou Ning, 2004: 10). “Red Menace” makes Chinese images in Hollywood movies evil and ferocious rather than weak or incompetent, which is the reason why Americans express their distrust in Chinese people and China’s politics.

3.4.1 Male Images

During the two decades, there are mainly three types of anti-China movies: 1. Attacks on Chinese politics, including deface of the Communist Party of China and the slander of Chinese army and soldiers. For instance, in the film Peking Express (1951), a leader sells medicine to black market illegally for his own profit. 2. Description of the poverty in China, especially the weak labor or the chaotic opium dens. For example, at the beginning of the film The Godfather (1972), Chinese labors are smoking pipes everywhere in the opium den. The label of “Sick Man of Asia” is imposed on Chinese to manifest the wisdom and superiority of the west. 3. Terrorism. The most typical character is Dr. No in 007 series (1962). He is the representative of early terrorism who develops nuclear weapons secretly. Obviously, Dr. No is the replica of Fu Manchu. Wearing Chinese tunic suit and a pair of black gloves, he is a devil. During this period, the main focus of Hollywood is Cold War. The series of Dr. No is the product of Cold War. The image of Dr. No conveys Americans’ fear against China, regarding China as a threat to its security and interest.

3.4.2 Female Images

The most representative female image during this period is Suzie Wong in The World of Suzie Wang (1960) starred by Nancy Kwan. It tells a love story between a white artist and a Chinese prostitute. The male protagonist is seeking success and fame in Hong Kong while the female protagonist is tortured by life. Eventually, the prostitute is saved by the white hero and they live a happy life. Although the romantic affection covers up the inside colonial mentality, the ethnic superiority manifests that it is still a cross-cultural salvage. One detail can manifest American’s attitude towards Chinese female images.

One day, Robert finds that Suzie is wearing an expensive European-style dress. Instead of praising her, Robert blames that she dresses like a pathetic European prostitute. Ironically, he buys Chinese ancient clothes and has she dressed as an imaginary oriental princess regardless of Suzie’s opinion. What is reflected here is Americans’ ignorance of Chinese culture and tradition. The contrast between the two countries’ ideology dissuades Americans to understand the oriental world. Thereby, they live in their world of art that is fabricated and smug over their ruling status. It is under such a condition that an oriental world is formed.

3.5 Controversial and Heroic: 1972-1999

With the change of American foreign policy and the establishment of the diplomatic relationship, “Red Menace” is relieved to some degree though some films like Seven years in Tibet (1997), Kundun (1997) and Red corner (1997) still distort China. For example, Seven Years in Tibet presumes that Tibet is a nation under the totalitarian of Chinese Communist Party. Chinese images tend to be controversial and heroic.

3.5.1 Male Images

During this period, characters of Chinese are divided into three types: 1. London-based triad gang, 2. Soldiers, 3. Governmental officials, which may lead to controversy. The most controversial one is the movie Year of the Dragon (1985). In the film, “The ideological operation of these racist and sexist myths beneath a veneer of liberalism” (Marchetti, 1993: 289) is clearly presented. The evil, brutal, and slippery Chinese image in the film is created to distort Chinese images in order to show the America-centered value and racism. For example, Chinatown in this film, controlled by reactionary gangs, is a place full of blackmails, assassination, robbery and narcotic drugs. Chinese images are ferocious in the film. Qiao Yitai starred by Jone Lone is ambitious and merciless while the detective Mr. White is the representative of “American image”. In addition to maintaining the authority of American law, he improves of the image of white men, which, in essence, reflects the mainstream consciousness. Therefore, when Qiao is defeated by him, Mr. White, the final winner, symbolizes the American hero and the superiority of America.

In addition to controversy, there is a tendency towards heroism. Representatives are Bruce Li, Jackie Chan and Jet Li. Bruce Lee is the first kung fu hero on Hollywood screen and establishes a new era of Chinese images in Hollywood movies. The film Enter the Dragon (1973) subverts the insidious, brutal and cunning images represented by Fu Manchu into persevere, chivalrous images. In rush Hour (1998), Jackie Chan plays the leading role as a hero. However, the most popular character is his partner Chris Tucker. Even some Americans believe that Tucker is protagonist. “In this series, English is on behalf of wisdom and civilization while Chinese Kung fu symbolizes primitive force. It is the authentic American English as well as the constant wit that makes Christ Tucker more popular. The real hidden text in Rush Hour series starred by Jackie Chan is that English spoken by Americans is art but Kung fu performed by Chinese is just acrobatics” (Lin Peili, 2008: 6).

As a result, though armed with the clothes of Kung fu, behind the righteous and lofty Chinese figure is the American-centered racial cultural relationship. Because of its discourse power, America becomes the center of the world while China, accepting American culture, is submissive to American. Another important figure is Jet Lee. Different from Jackie Chan, the images created by Jet Lee are solitude, silent, mysterious, and unromantic .The myth that Chinese heroes are unromantic indicates that Hollywood movies try to maintain the tradition of sex and race between Chinese and the white.

3.5.2 Female Images

Although male images in Hollywood movies evolved, female images remain similar. Female images in Hollywood fall in to four groups: China doll, seductive sin, dragon lady and brave fighters.

For instance, Hu Li in Rush Hour2 (2001) starred by Zhang Ziyi is ferocious. Inside her dainty body is a demon. She is like a coquettish fox with a strange but cruel smile. Women in films are always observed and displayed. Their appearances are described as seductive and sexy (Dai Jinhua, 2007: 146). Chinese female images as brave fighters can be seen in Hollywood movies such as Tomorrow Never Dies (1998). In Tomorrow Never Dies, Michelle Yhoe overthrows the traditional images of delicate beauty played by Hollywood actresses in 007 series. She is a good helper to Bond. With wisdom and Kung fu, she finally saves Bond, which is unprecedented. However, although she is strong, she is eventually conquered by Bond and thus falling in love with him, indicating that the west is perfect and it is the ideal that the east represented by China has long pursued. In the film Tai Pan (1986), Meimei, as the wife and maid servant of Tai Pan, is willing to be the slave of Tai Pan, and wants to improve her social status. Tai Pan, regarding the possession of Meimei as his biggest happiness, demonstrates his strength as a western man. In essence, it is telling a story that the orient is occupied by the west and the weak is protected by the strong.

During the development of Hollywood movies, Chinese female images are often constructed by Hollywood through imagination like angels, sirens, dragon ladies.

3.6 Positive and Diversified: 1999-2013

In the 21st century, with the increasing comprehensive national strength of China and the constant communication between the two countries, the images in Hollywood movies tend to be neutral and positive. For example, Kung fu Panda (2009) is helpful to propagate Chinese culture. In films like The Children of Huang Shi (2008), The Forbidden King (2008), 2012 (2009), Chinese figures are somewhat positive.

3.6.1 Male images

Chinese figures are somewhat positive. In this part, 2012 and Kung fu Panda will be further analyzed. In 2012 (2009), China is endowed with a great mission. Noah’s Ark is left to be built by Chinese because of its huge population. When the U.S. president passes by in a bus, he says, “It is only by Chinese that the mission can be completed.” Providing that this is a reflection of the reality, then it is an acknowledgement of China as the world factory (Hu Bing, 2010: 4). However，the fact that the commander is a foreigner only reveals the creativity and philanthropy of the west. The roles of the PLA men (men of the People’s Liberation Army of China) are positive at the beginning. But when saying “Our party and country will help you”，PLA men are armed with guns, indicating that they will expel the mass by force and violence. And the Tibetans are described as illiteracy and lazyboots when asked whether they can read or write, which is in strong comparison with the high-tech American society. The scene that American scientists, officials, captains decide the course of Noah’s Ark reflects the western-centered value.

However, this film can still be regarded as a transition of Chinese images from simplification to group. Chou Yun-Fat in Bulletproof Monk (2003) shows the enchantment of oriental male images. And inevitably, Kung fu is one of the necessary elements that attract audience. Therefore, male images in Hollywood movies tend to be positive and diversified. However, ideology behind the scene can be seen. For example, the image starred by Chou comes from Tibet, a place in controversy. And the theme of love indicates the subtle relationships among China, Russia and America. The bond between Cui and Karl, who represent Russia and the occident represented by America, ensures the safety of Tibet, which reveals the social appeal and purpose of interest group as well as ideology behind the scene.

3.6.2 Female images

In 2000, a series of movies named Charlie’s Angels were released. The most typical Chinese female image is played by Lucy Liu. She is capable of completing her tasks easily under dangerous conditions. The strong impressions of Chinese female images left upon Americans’ mind come from their diligence and bravery. The same is to the female image of Mulan.

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