论文总字数：30091字

摘 要

饮食文化作为文化的一个重要组成部分，在人类发展史上不断演变。不同的饮食文化体现不同的价值观。随着跨文化交流的发展，更多的外国人开始了解中国饮食文化，他们对中国饮食文化的了解可以看作是他们更好地了解中国文化的一种方式。本文通过研究饮食文化的差异使人们更好地了解它们所反映的不同核心价值观，也就是美国的个人主义与中国的集体主义。再在分析中美不同饮食文化的基础上进一步分析中美不同价值观产生的历史原因及其融合趋势。本文旨在使人们明白既要理解西方文化又要尊重本国文化。只有这样，人们才能避免犯下跨文化交际错误。

关键词：价值观；饮食文化；个人主义与集体主义；中国和美国

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 2

3. The Comparisons of Different Diet Cultures between China and America 3

3.1 Differences in Diet Idea 3

3.2 Differences in Diet Patterns 4

3.3 Differences in Table Manners 5

4. The Historical Factors of the Formation of Different Values in China and America 6

4.1 Political Factors 6

4.2 Economic Factors 7

4.3 Cultural Factors 8

5. The Integration of Chinese Culture and American Culture 9

5.1 The Integration of Diet Cultures 9

5.2 The Integration of Different Values 9

6. Conclusion 10

Works Cited 11

1. Introduction

The definition of culture is an important and complex problem because of the wide coverage of culture itself and the scholars with different academic background. Tylor said culture is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.’’(qtd. in Chang Junyue, Lv Chunmei and Zhao Yongqing, 2011：92) Culture can be seen the core and a powerful tool in cross-culture communication. People should learn about each country from the surface culture (i.e clothing, shelter, food, transports, etc.) to the deep culture (i.e world outlooks, values, etc.) in the cross-cultural communication. Surface culture is usually influenced by deep culture and is a reflection of deep culture. And different surface diet cultures are influenced by different values in a country. As far as China and America are concerned, the different diet cultures are deeply influenced by the core values in these two countries, which are Collectivism in China and Individualism in America. “We may gain a deep awareness of the role that cultural values play in the inter-cultural communication, even though here only Chinese and American cultural values are selected as examples, Chinese and American values, as the typical sample of Asian and Western culture, may more or less represent the keys in Asian and Western cultures” (Li Yu-ting, 2011: 365).Individualism is a social and political philosophy, which pays high attention to the freedom of individual people and widely emphasizes that individuals have right to make their own decisions, etc., rather than controlled by government (Hornby, and Wang Yvzhang, 2009: 1040). “In individualist countries, the autonomy of the individuals is paramount. Key words used to invoke this cultural pattern include independence, privacy, self, and the all important ‘I’.” (Xv Lisheng, 2013: 100) People can easily see that individualism emphasizes equality, freedom and personality. Individualism is often associated with western cultures like American culture while Collectivism is often associated with eastern cultures like Chinese culture. “Collectivist cultures believe in obligations to the group, dependence of the individual on organizations and institutions, a ‘we’ consciousness, and an emphasis on belonging.” (Xv Lisheng, 2013: 100) Collectivism requires an absolute loyalty to the group and advocates individual people belonging to a society and personal interests should be subjected to the interests of a group.

Reasons of the formation of diet cultures are discussed to help people understand the formation of values. With the development of society and multi-culture, different diet cultures and values are becoming more and more adopted by different people. Nowadays, people take delicious food as an enjoyment and also pay attention to the nutrition of the food. So, to cater to people’s demand of food, Chinese diet is changing gradually under the influences of Western diet, which makes it healthier than before. From the changes of dietetic cultures, people can know values are changing gradually.

2. Literature Review

In 1980, Greet Hofstede published a book, Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work Related Values. He started to conduct opinion surveys of people in companies around the world instead of categorizing values and then he used statistical methods to analyze the findings of the survey. From his analysis, he concluded four cultural dimensions on cross-cultural field. Each country that he surveyed was assigned a score for each pair of contrasting values. The four cultural dimensions are: “individualism versus collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, masculinity versus femininity.” (Xv Lisheng, 2013: 99) “According to Geert Hofsted’s cultural dimensions, America has relatively high individual index and therefore is highly individualistic, believes that people are only supposed to take care of themselves, and perhaps their immediate families” (Dai Weidong, 2013: 100). Even though China was not surveyed in eastern countries, Hong Kong and Formosa were surveyed and belonged to collectivist regions. So, there is no doubt that China is a collectivist country (Hu Wenzhong 1999: 165, 171). Besides, according to a Chinese scholar, Luo Yanli, she analyzed how three aspects of diet culture: the ways of producing, the ways of eating and table manners reflect the core values-individualism in America and collectivism in China (Luo Yanli, 2007: 17). This article will further analyze reasons of the formation of different values and then study the integration of collectivism and individualism in the modern time.

“The discovery of a new dish does more for the happiness of mankind than the discovery of a star.” (Du Li et al. 2007: 62) It is apparent that the diet is important for it influences all aspects of human life. People can understand other countries’ culture better through learning their diet cultures. People know individualism is a moral political and social philosophy. It argues that personal interests should be the most significant factor in determining behavior and pays attention to the importance of individual freedom, personality and personal virtues and independence. Western individualism has an influence in the emergence and development of capitalism. But with the development of capitalism, the disadvantage of western individualism and the negative development of the society come up, making a lot of people rethink about many problems of the contemporary capitalism. They think collectivism and socialism together are the methods to solve all the problems of the contemporary western society. Today, the impact of individualism and collectivism can be seen in many aspects. People from collective culture have higher tendency to obey. A study of Chinese students who study in America found that Chinese students tend to be more obedient than their American peers. When Chinese students meet with difficulties, they are likely to turn to help from the supervisor but American students turn to friends (Xv Lisheng, 2013: 101). From the view of psychology, the influences of individualism and collectivism also have an impact on the personality of ego. Compared with American culture, independent model of self, the self in Chinese cultures is a kind of dependent self. For Chinese, to a certain extent, the self is only a part in the group. So, people will often consider organizations when they deal with the relationship with outside world. Individualism and collectivism have an influence on people"s social behavior. When they solve the interpersonal conflict in reality, the collectivist tend to use the method of consultation but individualists resort to law often. In terms of social perception and interpersonal interaction, collectivists pay attention to the joy and harmony of groups and individualists focus on the personality. Due to these characteristics in interpersonal communication, people"s physical and mental health are affected. Loneliness is a problem of the culture of individualism rather than cultural problems of collectivism. However, it does not mean that collectivism is always good. Due to the expansion of emotional connection, the possibility of feeling nervous for the collectivist is higher than the individualist, which does harm to health.

In short, the study about individualism and collectivism never stops although there have been quite a lot of disputes.

3. The Comparisons of Different Diet Cultures between China and America

There are three different ways to be compared, which can help people understand well different diet cultures of China and America.

3.1 Differences in Diet Idea

Diet idea refers to the emphasis people put on eating. As an old Chinese saying goes “Food is God for the people”. It shows that eating is very important for Chinese and Chinese people take a good meal as a pursuit of art of beauty. The Chinese emphasizes the color, smell and taste of food. It is no wonder that Chinese people pay attention to the taste of food with the taste including five parts: acid, sweet, bitter, pepper and salt and they try to reconcile the flavor of every ingredient to achieve a delicious taste (Zhao Rongguang, 2003:105). In Chinese diet culture, people may pay more attention to pursuing the taste than the nutrition (Du Li et al. 2007:15). The whole part is emphasized in Chinese food which is similar to the emphasis on collectivism because collectivism pays more attention to the unity and the whole level of the group.

Western countries also care about food just as reflected in a proverb in the west “The world is nothing without life, and all that lives takes nourishment.” (Du Li et al. 2007: 62) However, Westerns pay more attention to the nutrition of the food but not the form and taste of a dish. Americans stress on the original flavor and nutrition of the food and they emphasize the choice of food needs meet an individual’s demand. To balance the requirement of different kinds of nutrients for his or her body, people pay attention to cooking raw materials (Du Li et al. 2007: 15). They prefer fresh raw material and like to keep the original taste and nutrition of each. Although the food is bitter to eat, they would like to eat provided that it contains a lot of nutrition. The amount of protein, fat, heat and vitamin is important but not the taste of the food for Americans.

3.2 Differences in Diet Patterns

When it comes to different diet patterns, Chinese prefer to share their food with others while Westerns would like to have food on separate plate. In China, no matter han nationality or other ethnic minorities almost all adopt a system of eating together. In the system, a lot of people sit together at the table and eat a dish or a few dishes together, which shows advantages of unity and sharing. Besides, these advantages as a symbol of unity and harmony have influenced Chinese people for a long time. These advantages are also the characteristics of a collectivist country. Although there is a full display of many dishes on a table, you can not always eat food you love because of the distance. Besides, you need to consider others who sit beside you. People tend to be influenced by each other and can not decide how to eat according to their will (Du Li et al. 2007: 81).

In western diet cultures, people usually lay emphasis on eating separately. Although people sit together at the same table, an individual has personal food in his or her dish. On the formal dinner in America, the hostess divides food equally to every one on the table and then people begin to eat food on their own plate with no need of getting others’ permission. They eat in a way which they like or dislike without disturbing others or pay more attention to others’ thoughts or permissions. There is no interference. This is recognized more healthier and more optional than traditional Chinese food culture (Du Li et al. 2007: 62) .

3.3 Differences in Table Manners

Chinese people usually do not say too much at the table. People can"t completely decide how to eat, what to eat and when to eat according to their personal will. It is often the case when Chinese people go out for dinner with others, especially elders, in a Chinese restaurant, he or she often orders food which others like but ignores his or her own appetite. After eating the meal, people begin to pay for the dinner as soon as possible. This is due to Chinese core value---collectivism. In a collectivist country, Chinese people care too much about others’ minds, especially the elders’ and ignore their own thoughts, freedom or right. An individual is not allowed to eat if the master or the elder at the same table does not show a sign to eat. If some one starts to eat without the elder’s permission, he or she will be regarded as showing no respect for elders. So, in China elders decide "eating" but not yourself, especially when you are a young man. The only thing to do is follow the arrangement of the elder or the other people in the group. It is clear to see that Chinese people pay attention to other person’ mind but not himself or herself. In China, a collectivist country, people take others’ opinions and attitudes for principle during their dinner time.

Differing from Chinese people, westerners care more about their own thoughts. Usually, in a diner party, they make friends with different people almost according to their interests, hobbies, views and choices regardless of their status, age. Being different from Chinese, Americans have high right to make decisions, such as when to eat, how to eat, what to eat. Besides, in the United States, people put all food on the display and they usually walk around to choose food they like to eat and people they want to talk with. When they eat in a restaurant, they order food only relying on their own wish and eat separately. After eating, everyone pays for their own food. This phenomenon is called AA system. These fully reflect equality and individuality of all people in the United States. For example, in a restaurant, producers of steak, often need to ask guests what kind of steak they want (Du Li et al. 2007: 85). And chef cooks food on the basis of the request of guests before bringing food to the table.

These fully reflect different values between China and America. In China, people pay much attention to others’ opinions, thoughts and decisions and ignore their own will, which show they care about others and they are polite or well educated. In contrast, Americans pursue the freedom, equality and personality and usually do not need to care about others’ opinions or decisions. Different diet cultures reflect different values and different values are decided by different historical factors.

4. The Historical Factors of the Formation of Individualism and Collectivism

To learn about the factors of the formation of individualism and collectivism better, analyzing the factors of the formation of different diet culture between China and America is a good way for different diet cultures can reflect various values.

4.1 Political Factors

First of all, politically, in a history of thousands of years of its development, China was mostly in the form of an united state. In order to control every aspect of the development in the whole country, the leader carried out a centralized feudal system and then each region was interconnected. As a result, the development of diet is relatively balanced. Because of the influence of long-term unified and centralized governance, the Chinese diet history is bound to present a unified development pattern (Du Li et al.2007: 180).

With the development of the region in different historical stages, the food is also different. Politics influence Chinese diet culture and diet culture is the reflection of values. So, politics make an effect on the formation of values in some way. Due to long-term unity and centralization, Chinese people believe that the group is the form of life and people is nothing when they leave the group. It is apparent that Chinese exaggerated the power of the collective. Personal interests should be subject to and serve the collective interests.

By contrast, the history of American diet presents an unbalanced development pattern. The major national diet in different important historical stages of development is highly uneven. These are often caused by centralized control in economy, politics and culture. Few western countries maintain its position as the united nation, in the process of historical development and many countries are more or less divided. America is difficult to implement all aspects of unity without the strong power of the central government. The power is not controlled by a common ruler and each state is comparatively independent, which results in a variety of national values.

4.2 Economic Factors

From the point of view of economy, the prosperity of economy is the material basis for cultural prosperity. In China, a unified political and long-term centralized feudal control determined the economical and cultural unity (Du Li et al. 2007: 180). In the history of China, besides the capital, economical and cultural centers in the north and the south were all controlled strictly by the ruler. So, different regions’ diet culture had its own features but was similar to that of other regions on the whole. Overall, small-scale peasant economy was dominant in traditional China and it was an important cause of the formation of collectivism. Under the influences of the small-scale peasant economy, the family was seen as the unity to work. The system maintained the power of the family and the power suppressed any individual behavior. It should be regarded as the source of collectivism. The stability was determined by the related personal relationship within the family, guaranteed by the power structure of this system. Besides, individual interests and feelings should make sacrifices for the sake of the family, the group or the country.

In American society, industrial and commercial development has played a very important role. In order to gain benefit and earn money from industries, people usually get away from their home and move to a new place. With the high mobility of population, it is easy for people to develop a strong sense of personality and individual awareness. This can be seen easily from the diet habit like separate eating in America. They believe individuals compose unity of the whole society and respect personal will and values. They believe the complement or achievement of a job almost depends on the personal ability（Du Li et al. 2007: 80). In an industry, each person has his or her own position, he or she does not need to care about others’ job. When a person makes a mistake, others do not need to take responsibility for him or her. Americans do their jobs on their own duties. Individuals as the main body and industries as the link of social groups are the basic production unit of this kind of the industrial and commercial economy. The development of industry and commerce contributes a lot to the formation of individualism.

4.3 Cultural Factors

In China, a culture of “Confucianism” was promoted by the central government and as a result, the thoughts of Confucian became an incomparable core in Chinese culture. Confucianism as the mainstream of Chinese traditional culture was also the cornerstone of the living of Chinese people. It is a principle of Confucianism that social order and stability are based on obedience of the inferior to the superior or the junior to the senior. Under the influence of it, Chinese people tend to order food according to others’ appetite but ignore their own thoughts. The values with its emphasis on social orientation became official and ruling ideas in a long history of Chinese feudal rule. They do not advocate making the head rafters and they point out "endurance" is a kind of wisdom, and prefer moderation in all things. People should consider others’ feelings. The doctrine of the Confucian culture emphasizes on the reconciliation and eliminating individual characters and as a result Americans usually think people are used to keeping low profile and staying average. In China, "moderate" means "just right" and they work both in life and work. Neither do things too good nor too bad. In a collective unity, secondary level is just right. Since Confucianism has great impacts on ancient and contemporary China, as a consequence, individuals get used to subordinating to the society, group, race, class and national interests of the collectivism. It is not surprising to find China a collectivist country.

In America, people are regarded as a unique who gets the grace of God and has high ideals and is destined to gain achievement. American culture emphasizes independence, personality, which shows that people believes in themselves. So, Americans especially rely on their own. The United States is an immigrant country and immigrants come from all corners of the world: Europe, South America, Africa, and so on. Each ethnic group with its own culture is absorbed and integrated into the American culture. Diversity of American culture promotes the United States to become a more open, free and democratic society. Personal achievement is one of the most important value in all Americans’ values. A good environment for the occurrence and development of the individualism in America is provided by this culture.

All in all, their unique politics, culture and economy are the reasons of the formation of different values, which are individualism in America and collectivism in China. Although different historical reasons lead to different diet cultures, with the development of multi-cultural communication, the integration of diet cultures and core values has happened.

5. The Integration between Chinese Culture and American Culture

“Chinese and American cultures go through binary oppositions to harmonious co-existence, which is not only an expression of cross-cultural ideas, but also an inevitable trend of the development of Sino-US cultural exchanges” (Yang Yali amp; Yang Fan, 2012. ). In the present time, the integration of diet cultures reflects the integration of individualism and collectivism.

5.1 The Integration of Diet Culture

Traditional Chinese preferred to share their food with others, so they ate a dish together and stressed the taste of food. Chinese traditional diet manner may not be too healthy because people eat together. And because they eat together, it is common for individuals to pay for the group of people. But now, many young Chinese would like to pay for the food by the way of AA system rather than pay for the meal for others in a restaurant. Now, more and more western restaurants and cafeterias appear in China. Chinese people tend to accept western food already, which shows the values in China are changing. Americans often put the nutrition of the food in the first place but ignore the taste of the food in the past. Now, the Americans pay attention to both the nutrition and the taste, and they also like to eat different kinds of Chinese food. These changes are only a small part of the integration of diet cultures, and the changes of diet culture are largely consequences of changes of values, which shows a perfect combination of different diet cultures and the core values---collectivism in China and the individualism in America.

5.2 The Integration of Individualism and Collectivism

The cultural exchanges, or rather the integration of core values reflects in three aspects: First, people tend to realize that collective interests and personal interests are normally consistent in root. Collective societies or countries have a duty to maintain legitimate personal interests. At the same time, personal interests can not override collective interests, namely social and national interests, for promoting the growth of common interests. Second, when individual interests and collective interests conflict, the interests of the individual should obey collective interests as long as the collective interests are just. Sacrifice of personal interests should be seen as pursuing their own lofty moral realm. Of course, the collective will also tries to consider personal interests. Third, any behavior that violates the interests of the individual or the interests of the collective is equally illegal or at least a violation of morality. Individualism should be distinguished from self-interest strictly. Individualists can not take the society as a means of achieving personal purpose. Sometimes, personal sacrifice is absolutely necessary in order to achieve human common goals and benefit the social and collective interests. Due to the integration of the values, Chinese people can eat food at their will and do not often pay for others when they eat together and the Americans may not usually follow the AA system.

Individualism and collectivism are in dialectical unification. In the circumstances of distinguishing western individualism and egoism, collectivism absorbs reasonable elements from individualism to overcome the far-left expression of collectivism.

6. Conclusion

Each country has a unique culture. Surface culture consists of all aspects of people"s daily life but is influenced by deep culture. People understand their own culture and the other culture by knowing differences of cultures. In the 21st century, cultural conflicts between China and the West are becoming more and more serious. People from one culture sometimes believe the food that people from another culture eat is disgusting or nauseating because they know less about another country’s values. The diet is visible but the value is invisible. Values are products of a long historical developing process but not products of a particular period. In order to help people understand different core values well, the writer compares and analyzes different diet cultures of China and America.

After knowing values better, people may understand and respect differences of cultures between different countries. And they may understand the importance of Chinese collectivism and will no longer think the Chinese neglect individual rights or freedom because collectivism has its superiority which accords with the development of Chinese national conditions. Never judge a book from its cover and never judge individualism and collectivism from one aspect. Only when individualism and collectivism change with times, can they have their own development.

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