论文总字数：29811字

摘 要

社交称谓语作为一套约定俗成的社会交际符号，是历史文化积淀的产物，具有鲜明的民族特色。选择正确的社会称谓语也是跨文化交际成败的重要因素。因此，社交称谓语的研究是不同民族文化之间实现沟通与交流的桥梁和纽带。本论文从姓名称谓、职称称谓、通称以及泛化的亲属称谓对汉英社会称谓词的异同进行了简单的对比，并从个人主义、集体主义以、封建等级制度以及传统礼教分析了造成这种差异的原因。通过对比与总结，我们能够有效地避免因双方文化差异带来的误解，从而促进中西方国家的跨文化交流。

关键词: 社会称谓语；对比分析；文化差异；

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 2

3. Differences Between Chinese And English Social Appellation 3

3.1Name Address Terms 3

3.2 Positional Address Terms 4

3.3 Generic Address Terms 5

3.4 Generic Kinsfolk Address Terms 6

4. Reasons for Differences 7

4.1 Individualism and Collectivism 7

4.2 Hierarchical Difference 8

4.3 Different Traditional Moral Codes And Thinking Model 9

5. Conclusions 10

Works cited...........................................................................................11

1. Introduction

With the ever-increasing development of economic integration, international exchange is more and more continual. In the process of intercultural communication, the first word people may say usually is the address to the hearer（Chen Songchen,1989）. Address terms result from the relationship between people, either based on biological relations or on some other mutual relations of people. In addition, it is also a term made for the identification and occupation of people. Address term is not only a phenomenon of language, but also culture. People can know not only the identification, status and relationship between the two parties involved, but also the unique thinking model and value orientation of this nation through the comparative study on address terms（Bao Huinan,2001）. During cross-cultural communication, if the two sides are not familiar with each other’s history and culture, it will lead to poor communication and even cultural conflict because information can not delivered well. Choosing appropriate social address forms is an important factor which can have great effect on the cross-culture communication. Thus, it’s important for people to have knowledge of differences between Chinese and English social appellation system and explore the prolong culture causes behind it.

This paper is composed of five parts. The introduction part mainly focuses on the definition of address term and the importance of this study. The second part introduces some scholar’s researches on this subject and makes a brief classification on address terms. A brief comparative analysis is made between Chinese and English social appellation from respects of names address terms, positional address terms, generic address terms and generic kinsfolk appellation terms in the third part. In the forth part, an analysis of reasons behind these differences is made from four aspects: individualism and collectivism, hierarchical difference and different traditional moral codes. The fifth part summarizes the differences and integration between Chinese and western culture which can help people have a better understanding on different culture background and achieve a better cross-cultural communication.

2. Literature Review

Since the 1960，the appellation has caused the attention of the semiotics, social linguists and pragmatic scientists. Semiotics regard it as a special sign system, as well as other symbols which are composed of the signifier and signified and it has a stronger nationality than the general symbol system. Social linguists regard it as an important part of language culture. Pragmatic scientists list its deictic function and classify it to the category of personal deixis which indicate that the appellation can reflect social role relationship and interpersonal relationship.

Roger Brown, an American psychologist, and Marguerite Ford take American appellation system into three groups: the mutual exchange of first name, the mutual exchange of title plus family name and the nonreciprocal pattern（R.Brown and Marguerite Ford,1962） which are widely accepted by many scholars and can also be applied to Chinese appellation system.

In addition, Brownamp; Gilman points that there are two kinds of factors –power and solidarity which restrict the use of the address. Power can be shown by status, as long as one party in the age, seniority, qualifications, wealth, status, power, etc, is better than that of the other party and it will have the power to the other party. The same relationship is shown by social distance, which means that both parties in the communication have common in some aspects, such as experience, age, gender, occupation, interest, religion, race and so on.

Chinese scholar Tian Huigang who writes the book Chinese and Western Interpersonal Appellation System compares Chinese and western interpersonal appellation systems from two aspects of kinship address terms and social address terms. He thinks that the traditional patriarchal beliefs and sense of hierarchy have a great impact on the Chinese appellation system while there are rich humanistic factors in western appellation system whose defining characteristic is respect for human and freedom and independent of human being（Tian Huigang,1998）. Other Chinese scholars, like Bao Huinan and Chen Yuzhen support the opinion that cultural differences, like hierarchical difference, different systems of values and different traditional moral codes, are the most important factors that influence those differences between Chinese and English social appellation system.

However, I think we can take appellation system into four groups: names address terms, positional address terms, generic address terms and generic kinsfolk appellation terms which can compare differences between Chinese and English social appellation system in a more detailed way than Roger Brown and Marguerite Ford’s approach. In addition, Chinese scholars’ researches about reasons of these differences are very comprehensive for us to study and we can organize these information to get complete knowledge about it.

3. Differences Between Chinese And English Social Appellation

When using a language to communicate with other people, people not only pass their thoughts and feelings to the other party, but also delicately determine the relationship between them on both sides of the identity, status and character to choose a appropriate way of the conversation. Address terms play this kind of social function of language.

Address terms usually can clarity into two main kinds: family address forms and social address forms. Family address form is a name which defines relations between self-person and his family members on basis of self-centeredness. The scope of application of this kind of appellations is small, mainly applied between members of the family. While social address forms, playing a critical role in address forms, are used widely by the whole society. It is a kind of address terms to all people except family members which can reflect social relations, social roles and the degree of respect between the two sides in communication.

Address terms express the feelings of the speaker and different ones show different feelings of speakers. People form a certain social network, and in this particular fixed network, the mutual address titles reflect the specific interpersonal relationships. Therefore, in daily communication the address term is no longer a simple inanimate symbol, but social culture, the main carrier of thoughts and feelings, which is full of color and passion. People maintain their identity and status in society in society. This part takes address terms into four types: names address terms, positional address terms, generic address terms and generic kinsfolk appellation terms and make brief comparison under each type.

3.1Name Address Terms

People like to designate each other with names both Chinese people and western people. However, people from the dissimilarity countries behave in different way. And we will make a simple introduction in this section.

Name address terms mean that the two communicating parties designate each other with names. A man’s name is composed of the family name and first name. Under normal circumstances, one’s family name can reflect social status and stratum of his family while the first name is a representative word sign of himself. The sort orders of Chinese and English names are different from each other. Anglo-American people use their first names which are arranged ahead of family names more often than family names. Chinese people are just the opposite, they feel family names which are frequently used are arranged ahead of first name is matters. Different expressions of Sino-British names also reveal the different concept between China and western countries such as Britain and America. People of western countries such as British and Americans advocate individualism and pay great attention on individual independence and equality between people; therefore, in the name of the arrangement, they stress self first, then the family.

In China, name addresses are frequently used among contemporaries, the superiors and the subordinates, such as Li Mei, Xiao Zhou; nick names are used among relatives and friends, such as Xiao Mei, A-jing, etc; however, single word ,for instance Mei, Jing is only adopted to lovers.

In the United States and in England, it’s a common phenomenon for people to designate each other with first names which are suitable for friends without limiting gender and age. People usually use first names to address the people they are talking to if they are in equal status. It’s common to address each other with first names, nick names and pet names between relatives. To show intimacy and equal relationships, people often are asked by the other to address him with his first name when one of them has a higher social status than another.

In addition, when it comes to address terms to the elder, Chinese people often use "old name" or "the surname old", such as Lao-wang or Wang-lao. And the elderly are willing to hear this address term, because of the concept of respect for the elderly, it means that he is knowledgeable, respected, worthy of respect. If addressing the elders by their name, person would be considered as a barbarian who receives little education. In English-speaking countries, people advocating youth, vitality and ability, they think "old" word means old and useless. The young adults are not willing to rely on the help of their parents, but to struggle and live independently. Meanwhile, parents also don"t want to rely on their offspring, but will be proud of their independence and ability. Therefore, if in accordance with Chinese tradition, people call a foreign elderly “old Smith”; It will cause their displeasure and they may think the person is suggesting that they are "frail, dependent on others." Instead, they prefer others address them by their names, believing it is a sign of close and politeness.

3.2 Positional Address Terms

Addressing other people with their identities is kind of a polite behavior in Chinese society. Many symbolic words which can mean social positions, such as occupation, position and professional titles are able to be used as address terms.

Occupational address: teachers, doctors, lawyers, etc;

Positional address: managers, chairmen, etc:

Job address: professors, colonels, etc:

All of these address terms above not only are capable of being used alone, but also can be matched with family names and first names to express approval and respect. Ordinary, job titles of some service-providing industries are not used as address forms like ticket sellers, shop assistants, drivers, etc.

One of the reasons why Chinese title appellation numerous may be the official standard concept ingrained in the minds of the people. The position is government post in many cases such as Secretary Chen, Director Zhang and President Li. Another reason may be related with that the Chinese people like to raise the policy of title appellation. People often call "nurse" as "doctor", "the waiter" as "Miss" and “the school staff” as "teacher". By using these decent occupation appellation to call others to express respect for others, while many people are willing to accept it.

In English society, it’s not common for people to address other people with family names plus position, however, a few professional titles can be used for those people who are doctors or have a doctor degree, such as Dr Green, Prof. William. Some special positional address terms are used extensively to address people from royal households, political circles, military circles, religious circles or legal community, such as Queen Elizabeth, President Obama, Father White, General Pattern, etc. The English generally use social terms commonly known as Sir or Mr. to call their boss, colleagues or officials of other departments while few "name  position" are used. It is the performance of the psychological consciousness that the western society advocate individual freedom. Any office is only an occupation, regardless of social status and identity. The West also has the use of "surname  occupation" to call each other, but it used to be placed in front of the name and occupation without any emotional color.

It is obvious that great differences exist between English and Chinese and English positional appellation. Positional titles are various and used widely in Chinese culture while these are rarely seen and used in English.

3.3 Generic Address Terms

Generic address terms refer to terms which can be used to call anyone in the whole society, regardless of their occupation, job and age（Dai Weiping等,2004）.

In English-speaking countries, the most common generic address terms are Mr, Miss, Ms plus surname. These elegant and respecting titles can be applied to people with different ages and different identities in formal or everyday life. At the same time, they contain the idea of equality. It is worth mentioning that Ms emerging in English in recent years is a female honorific term which, a product of women" fight for equality, in fact is synthesized from Mrs and Miss. The emergence of the term makes women get a full equality in appellation like men. They think that the word Mrs. contains the meaning of attaching to their husband; in addition, it reflects the marital status. Therefore, when people use this title Ms, it should be used in conjunction with the name of the women herself which is not associated with marital status. Sir and Madam are not used in conjunction with a surname, they express no intimate relationships. Specifically, sir applies to the following relationships: subordinate to the higher level, the young man to the elders, soldiers to their chief, the public to the government officials, students to teachers, store employees to male customers. Madam is a respectful address for female stranger. And the store clerk usually calls a female customer in this way. However, it has been an increasing trend for people in English-speaking countries to address another with his first name in recent years which express intimate and easygoing interpersonal relationships instead of disrespect.

At the beginning of the founding of our country, Tong-zhi as a respectful address was widely used in a very long time, without respect to job, occupation, age and gender. It reflects equal and cordial relationship between people in the new society. The wide use of the address terms Tong-zhi has a connotation of equality in politics and social status. And it fully reflects the Chinese ingrained thinking model and strong sense of community. With the implementation of the reform and opening up policy, our gradually integrate with the international community. More and more people will address others with Xian-sheng, Xiao-jie, Tai-tai, etc. But their meanings are different from those words which were widely used before the founding of our country. However, what needs to be noticed is that Chinese and foreigners have different opinions on choosing a appropriate address term. Age is a very important factor you need to consider when addressing others. If people call a middle-aged woman in her forties, Xiao-jie, she will be very unhappy because she thinks that her identity is reduced under this address terms. Some common generic address terms, for instance Da-jie and A-yi, are often used to express respect for women. In addition, the word “Shi-fu” is actually a common honorific within a certain scope.

Different generic address terms reflect different culture background and value between China and western countries.

3.4 Generic Kinsfolk Address Terms

Kinsfolk appellation is the kinfolks system reflection in language. In China, kinfolks appellation system is diverse and widely applied which even can be used to address those people who are totally strangers without any blood relationships with them. People often address the elderly whom they never knew before with “Da-ye”, “Da-niang” and address parent’s friends or peers with “uncle”, ”aunt”. Because Chinese culture attaches great importance to the clan relationship. Chinese society is developed on the basis of blood relationship patriarchal society whose national culture attaches great importance to the blood relationship and emphasizes the level difference between people. Therefore, in the Chinese culture kinsfolk appellation for relatives and non relatives is a very common form of address. Moreover, this address can make both sides feel close, narrow the distance between the two sides, and received good communication effect during the communication .

However, kinsfolk appellation are only used between family members in English society where addressing strangers who have no blood relationships with you with kinfolk appellations will be a very odd phenomenon. According to culture practices of these countries, people attach importance to individual privacy and private appellation. Hence, kinsfolk appellation, like grandma and uncle, is the proprietary right of family members. Therefore, when a child calls a foreign man Shu-shu which means uncle in English, he will respond: “Please call me Tom, not uncle. I’m not your uncle.” According to this situation, we can say: “Excuse me./Pardon me.” or directly say: “Hello.” when we communicate with foreign friends. Besides, the history of the United States as an immigrant society is a personal struggling history of development. There is more emphasis on independence, equality of people. Everyone is equal no matter his age or seniority. So even a child can not say a strange old man as " grandpa".

All of these above shows that in western countries people’s psychological approach to people outside the nuclear family members is much smaller than that of the Chinese people.

4．Reasons for Differences

Through the above comparative analysis of English and Chinese social address terms, we can see that the Chinese social appellation terms are more abundant, detailed and accurate and each of them has its specific meaning. And each call carries out its duty and heavy emotional color, but they rarely confuse with each other. While the English titles are relatively simple and show a certain degree of ambiguity and uncertainty; their stylistic and emotional color are relatively calm. The article will study the causes of these differences from four aspects.

4.1 Individualism and Collectivism

In western culture, represented by the United States and the United Kingdom, people advocates personality freedom and emphasis the sense of independence. People advocate self-centeredness which they think is the highest, and lay emphasis on the reflection of individual values in the process of free competition. In western communication, people often confidently choose the first person “I” to express their real feelings. And they pay attention to personal image, self-presentation and self-affirmation. They rarely use profound modest words and honorifics which are the essence of the language system of East Asia which is composed mainly of Chinese language. According to Hofstede’s research, people who attach importance to individualism think that personal goals are higher than that of collective ones and individuals can belong to many groups because the loyalty of the individual to their collectivity is very weak(Hofstede,1983). Individuals emotionally do not attach to any organization. Compared with the cooperation, they like competition more.

Collectivism is an ideological theory social which advocates that individuals belonging to the community and personal interests should be subject to the group, class and national interests. People are taught to be modest humble and dedicatory and believe in collectivism which is regarded as the highest in Chinese traditional culture. Feeling themselves inferior and respecting other people are greatly valued in etiquette norms. Therefore, Chinese people tend to belittle their self-worth on value judgment and respect others in the process of communication where they put themselves at lower status by using modest words to increase others’ status.

4.2 Hierarchical Difference

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